The administration of the penitentiary during the year shows an efficiency quite equal, if not superior, to any that has been witnessed in many years, and in one respect-that of economy-the result is a peculiarly gratifying one. The receipts for the labor of prisoners have exceeded the expenses of the prison by the sum of $13,000.

During the year ending October 31st. 425 convicts were received, and 290 discharged, leaving 1,000 still in confinement, which is the average number in the penitentiary. The average cost per convict for clothing, food, bedding and hospital, has been $51.37, against $87 for three years before. The State is not very largely interested in internal improvement. Its canals and other works are leased to responsible parties, and on satisfactory terms, until 1881.

OLDENBURG, a grand-duchy of the NorthGerman Confederation. Grand-duke, Peter I., born July 8, 1827; succeeded his father, February 27, 1853. Area, 2,417 square miles; population, in 1864, 314,416 (exclusive of 12,604 in the district of Ahrensbök, which formerly belonged to Holstein, was ceded by Prussia to Oldenburg on September 27, 1866, and taken possession of by Oldenburg on June 7, 1867). The public debt, in 1866, amounted to 6,090,300 thalers. According to a military convention concluded with Prussia, on July 15, 1867, the troops of Oldenburg are incorporated with the army of Prussia, which takes upon itself the military obligations of Oldenburg with regard to the North-German Confederation. The merchant navy, in 1866, consisted of 621 vessels, together of 32,507 lasts.

OREGON. Oregon is situated between 42° and 46° 20′ north latitude and between 116° 31' and 124° 30' west longitude, being about 395 miles in length, and 295 miles in width. Its area is estimated at 101,400 square miles, containing 120,000,000 acres of land, and not less than 30,000,000 susceptible of cultivation; its prairie-lands being finely watered, and interspersed with timber for fencing and building purposes. The State is usually divided into three portions, severally styled the Lower, Middle, and Upper Countries: the first is that portion next the ocean; the second lies between the Cascade Range and the Blue Mountains; the third being situated between the latter and the Rocky Mountains. The first is from 75 to 120 miles in breadth, and includes the Willamette, Umpqua, and Rogue River Valleys; the former running parallel with, and the latter at right angles to the sea. The valleys vary from 40 to 200 miles in length, and are from 10 to 80 miles wide. The middle portion, which consists mainly of an elevated plateau, is about 100 miles broad, while the Upper Country is mostly a desolate and sterile region, occupying the western slope of the Rocky Mountains. The area of the State is diversified with valleys of the richest agricultural and grazing lands, alternating with abrupt moun

tain-ranges whose peaks rise to the height of 16,000 feet above the level of the sea, and are covered with perpetual snow. The resources of this region are extensive, rich, and varied, embracing agricultural and mineral wealth, combined with vast forests of the finest timber, fitted for every purpose, and inexhaustible water-power for manufacturing purposes. There is probably no portion of the Union that combines within the same space, to a similar extent, all the varied elements of wealth and a steadily increasing prosperity.

Placer gold-diggings have been worked for a number of years; and extensive lodes of gold and silver bearing quartz exist in various portions of the State. Coal-mines have been opened and profitably worked at various points; and large deposits of copper, lead, and iron, are distributed throughout the State. Salt-springs of large capacity and strength are also abundant.

The climate and soil of the agricultural portions of the State are highly favorable to the growth of every variety of produce common to the Western and Northern States-all the grains, fruits, and vegetables flourishing here in the highest perfection with ordinary cultivation. Wheat, oats, barley, potatoes, and apples, are staple products; though peaches, pears, plums, cherries, and all the smaller fruits, flourish finely, and vegetables of all kinds grow luxuriantly. Experiments in the culture of tobacco, flax, hemp, hops, and other products, have proved highly satisfactory. Wild flowers bloom throughout the valleys in great profusion, and the winters are so mild that blossoms may be gathered at any time. Fruit-trees grow thriftily, and require but little cultivation. They bear earlier and in greater abundance than in any other portion of the Union, and some new varieties have been produced of superior excellence. The annual export of apples reaches some 250,000 bushels.

The State is admirably adapted to sheepraising, the diseases which are so fatal in other portions of the country being almost unknown, and the increase proving greater. Woollen factories have been started, manufacturing cloths, blankets, etc., in large quantities.

Oregon has some of the finest flouring-mills in the land, which turn out large quantities of flour unrivalled in quality, and which very soon will become an important article of export.

The following is regarded as a fair and reliable estimate of products and stock for the year: Acres in cultivation, 360,000; wheat, bushels, 3,500,000; barley, bushels, 100,000; oats, bashels, 2,000,000; corn, bushels, 80,000; rye, bushels, 5,000; tobacco, lbs., 90,000; tons of hay, 60,000; potatoes, bls., 300.000; onions, bushels 100,000; wool, lbs., 1,600,000; cattle, 200,000 ; horses, 90,000; hogs, 150,000; mules, 3,000; sheep, 375,000: butter, 2,000,000 lbs.: cheese, 75,000 lbs.; precious metals, $5,000,000.

The waters of the State abound in fish, and

finer salmon are nowhere taken; thousands of barrels are caught every year, and this industry will soon yield a handsome revenue to the State, and amply repay those engaged in it.

The system of common schools differs but little from that in the Eastern States, but owing to the sparseness of the population, its advantages are mainly prospective. The General Government made liberal donations of land for educational purposes by setting apart every sixteenth and thirty-sixth section, to be devoted to the support of common schools, thus laying the foundation of an ample fund for future years of these institutions. The Willamette University at Salem (being the oldest), and the Pacific University at Forest Grove, being the two principal seats of collegiate discipline, are now turning out their graduates, who will do unch in giving character to the Pacific States. During the year the Indians in the southern part of the State perpetrated many outrages, but their hostility was soon checked by the vigorous action of the troops sent against them. Oregon is divided into twenty-two counties, and has a population of 70,000.

No election for State officers or members of the Legislature was held in the State during the year.

OTHO, FRÉDÉRIC Louis, ex-King of Greece, born in Saltzburg, Bavaria, June 1, 1815; died at Munich, Bavaria, July 26, 1867. He was the second son of Louis I., King of Bavaria. He had hardly completed his studies when, in his seventeenth year, he was invited by the Greeks, who had then recently achieved their independence, to occupy the throne of the newly-created kingdom. The proposition being approved by the Governments of Great Britain, France, and Russia, in a treaty concluded in London in May, 1832, and soon after ratified by the King of Bavaria, was accepted by the young prince, and on the 25th of January, 1833, he made his formal entrance into Nauplia, accompanied by several officers of state, who were appointed a regency to exercise supreme authority until he became of age. On the 1st of June, 1835, he assumed personally the reins of government, under circumstances of great difficulty-the Bavarian regents having rendered themselves extremely unpopular while in office. Not only had they suffered the state to become the prey of public plunderers, but they had done violence to the national sentiment by nominating foreigners to many civil and military employments. Unfortunately the accession of the young King produced no change in the policy of the administration, and soon the discontent of the people was so intensified by the elevation of the Count d'Armansperg, one of the ex-regents, to the arch-chancellorship and the presidency of the Council, that an open revolt took place in Messenia and some of the adjoining provinces. The revolt was suppressed, but the discontent which had given rise to it still survived. On the 22d of September, 1836, Otho espoused the Princess Frederica

Amelia, daughter of the Grand-duke of Oldenburg, and the day of their landing at the Piræus

14th February, 1837-was signalized by the issuing of two royal decrees, one depriving Count d'Armansperg of the obnoxious offices, and another proclaiming Greek, instead of German, the official language of the state. These concessions satisfied to a certain extent public opinion, but, despite these much-needed changes and the adoption of some beneficial measures, the abuses of the interior administration continued to increase from day to day, and with them the popular excitement, until at length the demand became universal for the banishment of foreigners and the establishment of the constitution which had been originally promised by the King and the three protecting powers. The government continuing to be a despotic one, and Otho manifesting a reluctance to comply with the popular demands, in September, 1843, the Greeks, despairing of procuring in any other way the constitution, which they had been induced to expect from the King, surrounded the palace with an armed force and compelled him to accept the national programme, which bound him to form a new cabinet under the presidency of M. A. Metaxas, and to convoke within a month a National Assembly, whose duty it would be to frame a constitution for the kingdom. The Assembly was convened by the King on the 20th of November, and the new constitution was promulgated in the following March; the Bavarian ministers were sent home, and an auspicious era seemed about to dawn upon Greece. But these prospects were soon blighted by the reactionary tendencies of the King and his advisers, and the ancient abuses began to reappear. Attempts were made to remodel or abridge the concessions granted to the people, which the latter naturally resisted. Factions arose, whose violence increased the general discontent, which the constant changes of ministers could not allay. Thus matters were constantly growing worse, and the instability of power which resulted from such commotions rendered all internal peace impossible, while the complications of the Greek Government with France and England during the Crimean War tended still more to under-. mine the authority of Otho. At last the long-pending crisis arrived. In the autumn of 1861 the King again visited Germany, and on returning found himself environed by military conspiracies. No sooner was one outbreak suppressed, than another burst forth; but that which decided his fate was the émeute which occurred in his capital in October, 1862, during the absence of himself and his Queen on a voyage to the Peloponnesus. Then it was that the popular leaders organized a provisional government, and decreed the dethronement of the Bavarian monarch, who, after protesting in vain against this act, retired to his native Germany with his consort, and there passed in obscurity the residue of his days.

PALMER, Rear-Admiral JAMES S., United States Navy, commander of the North Atlantic squadron, born in New Jersey, in 1810; died of yellow fever at St. Thomas, West Indies, December 7, 1867. In January, 1825, he entered the Navy as a midshipman, subsequently he has been assigned to the usual routine of duties of a naval officer, and has passed through the various grades from lieutenant to admiral. In 1838 he served as a lieutenant on board of the Columbia in the attack on Quallah Battoo and Mushie, in the island of Sumatra. In the Mexican War he commanded the schooner Flirt, engaged in blockading the Mexican coast. In 1861 he connanded the Iroquois, then one of the vessels of the Mediterranean squadron, but was soon ordered home, and attached to the South Atlantic blockading fleet, under Admiral Dupont. In the summer of 1862 the Iroquois, still under Captain Palmer's command, was transferred to the Gulf squadron, and led the advance in the passage of the Vicksburg batteries. He was also engaged in the fight with the Confederate ram Arkansas, and again led the advance in passing the Vicksburg batteries later in the same year. In 1863 he commanded Admiral Farragut's flag-ship, the Hartford, when it passed the batteries at Port Hudson and Grand Gulf, and was present at the naval operations incident upon the siege and reduction of Port Hudson. He commanded the first division of iron-clads at the attack and reduction of Mobile, and won from the admiral the highest commendations. In December, 1865, he was assigned to the command of the North Atlantic squadron.

PAPAL STATES, THE. The spiritual power of the Roman Pontiff over all the world, in matters concerning faith, or the hierarchy, administration, and discipline of the whole Catholic Church. whose head he is, has been touched upon in another article of this volume. But, since he is possessed also of a considerable extent of territory, thickly set with cities, towns, and villages, inhabited by a large number of people of all conditions, over which he enacts civil, penal, and commercial laws-in short, exercises all those acts of supreme authority which the rulers of other governments, of whatever form or name-empires, kingdoms, republics-exercise within their respective limits; since, finally, he is at present, as long before he has been, recognized and treated by them, not as Pope only, but as sovereign; it is not amiss to give here (for the first time in this CYCLOPEDIA) a separate notice of the Pontifical Government as regards the civil and political condition of what is commonly styled the Temporal Dominion of the Popes. This seems the more proper to do, as the subject has been of late years much

spoken and written upon by everybody, even those who appear to have known either very little or nothing at all about it.

Origin, Extent, and Population, of the Pa pal States.-The temporal power of the Roman Pontiff, as an independent monarch, is traced by history back to the year 753, when Pepin, King of the Franks, by a solemn act of cession, grant, or donation, or by whatever name it may be called, bestowed on Pope Stephen and his successors in the Apostolic See the territory comprised within the Exarchate of Ravenna, with all its appurtenances and rights, in full sovereignty.

Moved by the repeated embassies and prayers of its inhabitants, he had twice crossed the Alps with a powerful army, and, by fighting in lawful war, twice retaken that territory from the rapacious hands of Astolphus, King of the Lombards, who. against the will and vain opposition of its defenceless people, had invaded and usurped it by force of armis, as he had done before with other portions of northern Italy. Being free by the laws of nations and of war to do with his own conquest as be pleased, Pepin ceded it, as we have just said, to the Popes of Rome. In doing which, he did only execute the wish of the Exarchate's inhabitants, who, like all their neighbors around them, had always regarded and found in the Pope their only effectual protector and helper in want or oppression, from whatever quarter. But the Emperors themselves of Constantinople, to whom the said territory and the rest of Italy (as portion of the Roman empire) had previously belonged, and who, for this reason, had maintained in Ravenna a resident vicegerent with the title of Exarch, but who, notwithstanding the long and loud supplications of their subjects to come and protect them against the incursions and yoke of the barbarians, either would not, or could not help them, and so had abandoned them to their fate, subsequently ratified the deed of Pepin, and recognized the Pope of Rome as independent sovereign of their quondam Exarchate.

This grant to the Apostolic See was afterward not only confirmed by Charlemagne. the son and successor of Pepin, but increasel. by a similar cession of the provinces of Spoleto and Perugia. These provinces, to gether with the rest of the lands usurped by the Lombards in Italy, he conquered in an equally just battle against their king Deside rius. As this prince obstinately refused to abide by the treaty which his predecessor Astolphus had concluded with Pepin a quarter of a century before, and intended to invade Rome itself, Charlemagne was compelled to make a fresh expedition into Italy, when, by much fighting, and finally taking the city of Pavia, after a siege of six months, he dethroned the