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employ arguments for establishing his own opinion, and overthrowing that of his antagonist: he may perhaps, if there be room for it, endeavour to touch the passions of his audience; and after having said all he thinks proper, he will bring his discourse to a close, by some peroration or conclusion.

476. This being the natural train of speaking, the parts that compose a regular formal oration, are these six: First, the exordium, or introduction;

Secondly, the statement, and the division of the subject;
Thirdly, the narration, or explication;
Fourthly, the reasoning, or arguments;
Fifthly, the pathetic parts;

And, lastly, the conclusion.

477. The exordium, or introduction, is manifestly common to all kinds of public speaking. It is not a rhetorical invention. It is founded upon nature, and suggested by

common sense.

Illus. When one is going to counsel another; when he takes upon him to instruct, or to reprove, prudence will generally direct him not to do it abruptly, but to use some preparation; to begin with some matter that may incline the persons, to whom he addresses himself, to judge favourably of what he is about to say; and may dispose them to such a train of thought, as will forward and assist the purpose which he has in view. This is, or it ought to be, the main scope of an introduction.

478. First, to conciliate the good-will of the hearers; to render them benevolent, or well-affected, to the speaker, and to the subject.

Ilus. Topics for this purpose may, in causes at the bar, be sometimes taken from the particular situation of the speaker himself, or of his client, or from the character or behaviour of his antagonists, contrasted with his own; on other occasions, from the nature of the subject, as closely connected with the interest of the hearers; and, in general, from the modesty and good intention with which the speaker enters upon his subject.

479. The second end of an introduction, is, to raise the attention of the hearers; which may be effected, by giving them some hints of the importance, dignity, or novelty of the subject; or some favourable view of the clearness and precision with which we are to treat it, and of the brevity with which we are to discourse.

480. The third end is, to render the hearers docile, or open to persuasion; for which end we must begin with studying to remove any particular prepossessions they may have con

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tracted against the cause, or side of the argument, which we espouse.

481. As few parts of the discourse give the composer more trouble, or are attended with more nicety in the execution, we shall here lay down the following rules, for the proper composition of this part of the subject.

482. The first rule is, that the introduction should be easy and natural. The subject must always suggest it.

Obs. It is too common a fault in introductions, that they are taken from some common-place topic, which has no particular relation to the subject in hand; by which means they stand apart, like pieces detached from the rest of the discourses to which they are prefixed.

483. In order to render introductions natural and easy, it is a good rule, that they should not be planned, till after one has meditated in his own mind the substance of his discourse. Then, and not till then, he should begin to think of some proper and natural introduction.

Obs. By taking a contrary course, and labouring in the first place on an introduction, every one who is accustomed to composition, will often find, that either he is led to lay hold of some common-place topic, or that, instead of the introduction being accommodated to the discourse, he is obliged to accommodate the whole discourse to the introduction which he had previously written.

484. In the second place, in an introduction, correctness should be carefully studied in the expression. This is requisite, on account of the situation of the hearers.

Obs. They are then more disposed to criticise than at any other period; they are, as yet, unoccupied with the subject or the arguments; their attention is wholly directed to the speaker's style and manner. Something must be done, therefore, to prepossess them in his favour; though, for the same reasons, too much art must be avoided; for it will be more easily detected at that time than afterwards; and will derogate from persuasion in all that follows.

485. In the third place, modesty is another character which it must carry. All appearances of modesty are favourable, and prepossessing. If the orator set out with an air of arrogance and ostentation, the self-love and pride of the hearers will be presently awakened, and they will listen to him with a very suspicious ear throughout all his dis

course.

Obs. His modesty should discover itself not only in his expressions at the beginning, but in his whole manner; in his looks, in his gestures, in the tone of his voice. Every auditory take in good part those marks of respect and awe, which are paid to them by one who addresses them. Indeed the modesty of an introduction should never betray any thing mean or abject. It is always of great use to an orator, that, together with modesty and deference to his hearers, he should shew a

certain sense of dignity, arising from a persuasion of the justice or importance of the subject on which he is to speak.

486. In the fourth place, an introduction should usually be carried on in the calm manner. This is seldom the place for vehemence and passion. Emotions must rise as the discourse advances. The minds of the hearers must be gradually prepared, before the speaker can venture on strong and passionate sentiments.

Obs. The exceptions to this rule are, when the subject is such, that the very mention of it naturally awakens some passionate emotion; or when the unexpected presence of some person or object, in a popular assembly, inflames the speaker, and makes him break forth with unusual warmth. Either of these will justify what is called the exordium ab abrupto.

Example. Thus the appearance of Catiline in the senate renders the vehement beginning of Cicero's first oration against him very natural and proper: "Quousque tandem abutere, Catilina, patientia nostra?" And thus Bishop Atterbury, in preaching from this text, "Blessed is he, whosoever shall not be offended in me," ventures on breaking forth with this bold exordium: "And can any man then be offended in thee, blessed Jesus?"

487. In the fifth place, it is a rule in introductions, not to anticipate any material part of the subject.

Obs. When topics, or arguments, which are afterwards to be enlarged upon, are hinted at, and, in part, brought forth in the introduction, they lose the grace of novelty upon their second appearance. The impression intended to be made by any capital thought, is always made with the greatest advantage, when it is made entire, and in its proper place.

488. In the last place, the introduction ought to be proportioned, both in length and in kind, to the discourse that is to follow in length, as nothing can be more absurd than to erect a very great portico before a small building; and in kind, as it is no less absurd to overcharge, with superb ornaments, the portico of a plain dwelling-house, or to make the entrance to a monument as gay as that to an arbour. Common sense directs, that every part part of a discourse should be suited to the strain and spirit of the whole.

Scholium. These are the principal rules that relate to introductions. They are adapted, in a great measure, to discourses of all kinds. In pleadings at the bar, or speeches in public assemblies, particular care must be taken not to employ such an introduction as the adverse party may lay hold of, and turn to his advantage.

489. After the introduction, what commonly comes next in order, is the proposition, or enunciation, of the subject. Concerning the proposition, it is to be observed, that it should be as clear and distinct as possible, and expressed in few and plain words, without the least affectation.

The Proposition or Enunciation of the Subject. 249

490. To this generally succeeds the division, or the laying down the method of the discourse; on which it is necessary to make some observations.

Obs. We do not mean, that in every discourse, a formal division or distribution of it into parts, is requisite. There are many occasions of public speaking, when this is neither requisite, nor would be proper; when the discourse, perhaps, is to be short, or only one point is to be treated of; or when the speaker does not choose to warn his hearers of the method he is to follow, or of the conclusion to which he seeks to bring them. Order, of one kind or other, is, indeed, essential to every good discourse; that is, every thing should be so arranged, that what goes before may give light and force to what follows. But this may be accomplished by means of a concealed method. What we call division is, when the method is propounded in form to the hearers. The discourse in which this sort of division most commonly takes place, is a sermon.

491. In a sermon, or pleading, or any discourse, where division is proper to be used, the most material rules are,

492. First, that the several parts into which the subject is divided be really distinct from one another; that is, that no one include another.

Obs. It were a very absurd division, for instance, if one should propose to treat first, of the advantages of virtue, and next, of those of jus tice or temperance; because the first head evidently comprehends the second, as a genus does the species. He who proceeds in this method involves his subject in disorder and indistinctness.

493. Secondly, in division, we must take care to follow the order of nature; beginning with the simplest points, such as are easiest apprehended, and necessary to be first discussed; and proceeding thence to those which are built upon the former, and which suppose them to be known. We must divide the subject into those parts into which it is most easily and naturally resolved; that it may seem to split itself, and not be violently torn asunder: " Dividere," as is commonly said, "non frangere."

494. Thirdly, the several members of a division ought to exhaust the subject; otherwise, we do not make a complete division; we exhibit the subject by pieces and corners only, without giving any such plan as displays the whole.

495. Fourthly, the terms in which our partitions are expressed, should be as concise as possible. Avoid all circumlocution here. Admit not a single word but what is necessary. Precision is to be studied, above all things, in laying down your method.

Obs. It is this which chiefly makes a division appear neat and elegant; when the several heads are propounded in the clearest, most expressive, and, at the same time, the fewest words possible. This

never fails to strike the hearers agreeably; and is, at the same time, of great consequence towards making the divisions be more easily remembered.

496. Fifthly, avoid an unnecessary multiplication of heads. To split a subject into a great many minute parts, by divis ions and subdivisions without end, has always a bad effect in speaking.

Obs. It may be proper in a logical treatise; but it makes an oration appear hard and dry, and unnecessarily fatigues the memory. In a sermon, there may be from three to five or six heads, including subdivisions: seldom should there be more.

497. The next constituent part of a discourse, which we mentioned, was narration, or explication.

Obs. We put these two together, both because they fall nearly under the same rules, and because they commonly answer the same purpose; serving to illustrate the cause, or the subject of which the orator treats, before he proceeds to argue either on one side or other; or to make any attempt for interesting the passions of the hearers.

Illus. 1. In pleadings at the bar, narration is often a very important part of the discourse, and requires to be particularly attended to. Besides its being in no case an easy matter to relate with grace and propriety, there is, in narrations at the bar, a peculiar difficulty. The pleader must say nothing but what is true; and, at the same time, he must avoid saying any thing that will hurt his cause.

2. The facts which he relates, are to be the ground-work of all his future reasoning. To recount them so as to keep strictly within the bounds of truth, and yet to present them under the colours most favourable to his cause; to place, in the most striking light, every circumstance which is to his advantage, and to soften and weaken such as make against him, demand no small exertion of skill and dexterity. He must always remember, that if he discovers too much art, he defeats his own purpose, and creates a distrust of his sincerity.

498. To be clear, and distinct, to be probable, and to be concise, are the qualities which critics chiefly require in narration; each of which carries, sufficiently, the evidence of its importance.

Illus. 1. Distinctness belongs to the whole train of the discourse, but is especially requisite in narration, which ought to throw light on all that follows. A fact, or a single circumstance left in obscurity, and misapprehended by the judge, may destroy the effect of all the argument and reasoning which the speaker employs. If his narration be improbable, the judge will not regard it; and if it be tedious and diffuse, he will be tired of it, and forget it.

2. In order to produce distinctness, besides the study of the general rules of perspicuity which were formerly given, narration requires particular attention to ascertain clearly the names, the dates, the places, and every other material circumstance of the facts recounted.

3. In order to be probable in narration, it is material to enter into the characters of the persons of whom we speak, and to shew that their actions proceeded from such motives as are natural, and likely to gain belief.

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