Analysis. There is a peculiar force and beauty in this; the word, which signifies figuratively the principal subject, denotes it to be a cause, by suggesting the effect.

III. A word proper to the cause, employed figuratively to express the effect; as, grief, sorrow, for tears.

Again, Ulysses veil'd his pensive head:

Again, unmann'd, a show'r of sorrow shed.
Streaming grief his faded cheek bedewed.

Blindness, for darkness.

Cæcis erramus in nudis. Encid, iii. 200.

Analysis. There is a peculiar beauty in this figure, similar to that in the former: the figurative name denotes the subject to be an effect by suggesting its cause.

IV. Two things being intimately connected, the proper name of the one employed figuratively to signify the other.

Mlus. Day, for light. Night, for darkness; and hence, a sudden night. Winter, for a storm at sea:

Interea magno misceri murmure pontum,

Emissamque Hyemem sensit Neptunus. Eneid, i. 128.

V. A word proper to an attribute, employed figuratively to denote the subject.

Youth and beauty shall be laid in dust.

Majesty, for king; as in Hamlet, Act i. Scene 1.

What art thou, that usurp'st this time of night,
Together with that fair and warlike form,

In which the majesty of buried Denmark

Did sometimes march?

Analysis. The peculiar beauty of this figure arises from suggesting an attribute that embellishes the subject, or puts it in a stronger light. VI. A complex term, employed figuratively to denote one of the component parts; as, funus, for a dead body; burial, for a grave.

Jovis

VII. The name of one of the component parts, instead of the complex term; as, the east, for a country situated east from us. vestigia servat, for imitating Jupiter in general.

VIII. A word signifying time or place, employed figuratively to denote what is connected with it.

Illus. Clime, for season, or for a constitution of government: hence the expression, merciful clime, fleecy winter, for snow, seculum felix. IX. A part, for the whole; as, the pole, for the earth; the head, for the person.

Triginta minas pro capite tuo dedi. Plautus.

Analysis. The peculiar beauty of this figure consists in marking that part, which makes the greatest figure.

X. The name of the container, to signify what is contained. Illus. Grove, for birds in it; as, vocal grove. Ships for the seamen; as, agonizing ships. Mountains for the sheep pasturing on them; as, bleating mountains. The kettle for the water; as, the kettle boils XI. The name of the sustainer, to signify what is sustained.

Illus. Altar, for sacrifice; field, for the battle fougnt upon it; as, well-fought field. (§ X. p. 140.)

XII. The name of the materials, to signify the things made of them; as, hemp, for rope; cold steel, for a sword; lead, for a bullet.

XIII. The names of the Gods and Goddesses, employed figuratively, to signify what they patronize.

Illus. Jove for the air, Mars for war, Venus for beauty, Cupid for love, Ceres for corn, Neptune for the sea, Vulcan for fire.

This figure bestows great elevation upon the subject; and therefore ought to be confined to the higher strains of poetry.

SECOND TABLE.

Attributes expressed figuratively.

I. When two attributes are connected, the name of the one may be employed figuratively, to express the other.

Illus. Purity for virginity. These are attributes of the same person or thing; hence the expression, virgin snow, for pure snow; virgin gold, for gold unalloyed.

II. A word signifying properly an attribute of one subject, employed figuratively to express a resembling attribute of another subject.

Illus. 1. Tottering state, imperious ocean, angry flood, raging tempest, shallow fears.

My sure divinity shall bear the shield,

And edge thy sword to reap the glorious field. Odyssey, xx. 61.

2. Black omen, for an omen that portends bad fortune: as, ater odor. Virgil.

Obs. The peculiar beauty of this figure, arises from suggesting a comparison.

III. A word proper to the subject, employed to express one of its

attributes.

Illus. Mind, for intellect; mind, for resolution.

IV. When two subjects have a resemblance by a common quality, the name of the one subject may be employed figuratively, to denote that quality in the other; as, summer, for agreeable life.

V. The name of the instrument, made to signify the power of employing it.

Melpomene, cui liquidam pater

Vocem cum cithara, dedit.

Scholium. The ample field of figurative expression, displayed in these tables, affords great scope for reasoning, as we shall find in the subsequent ANALYSES of figurative language.

CHAPTER II.

METAPHOR.

262. METAPHOR is a figure founded entirely on the resemblance which one subject bears to another. Hence, it is much allied to simile, or comparison; and is indeed no other than a comparison, expressed in an abridged form, (Art. 260.)

Illus. When of some great minister it is said, "that he upholds the state, like a pillar which supports the weight of a whole edifice," a comparison is made; but when it is said of such a minister," that he is the pillar of the state," it is now become a metaphor.

Analysis. The comparison betwixt the minister and a pillar, is made in the mind; but is expressed without any of the words that denote comparison. The comparison is only insinuated, not expressed; the one object is supposed to be so like the other, that without formally drawing the comparison, the name of the one may be put in the place of the name of the other. "The minister is the pillar of the state." This, therefore, is a more lively and animated manner of expressing the resemblances which imagination traces among objects. There is nothing that delights the fancy more than this act of comparing things together, discovering resemblances between them, and describing them by their likeness. The mind, thus employed, is exercised without being fatigued; and is gratified with the consciousness of its own ingenuity. (Scholium, p. 139.)

263. Though all metaphor imports comparison, and, therefore, is, in that respect, a figure of thought; yet, as the words in a metaphor are not taken literally, but changed from their proper to a figurative sense, the metaphor is commonly ranked among tropes or figures of words. (Example, Art. 245.) But, provided the nature of it be well understood, it signifies very little whether we call it a figure or a trope. (Obs. Art. 254.)

Illus. 1. We have confined it to the expression of resemblance between two objects. We must remark, however, that the word metaphor is sometimes used in a looser and more extended sense; for the application of a term in any figurative signification, whether the figure be founded on resemblance, or on some other relation which two objects bear to one another.

Example. For instance; when gray hairs are put for old age, as, "to bring one's gray hairs with sorrow to the grave;" some writers would call this a metaphor, though it is not properly one, but what rhetoricians call a metonymy; that is, the effect put for the cause; (§. II. p. 139.) " gray hairs" being the effect of old age, but not bearing any sort of resemblance to it.

264. Of all the figures of speech, none comes so near to painting as metaphor. Its peculiar effect is to give light and strength to description; to make intellectual ideas, in some sort, visible to the eye, by giving them colour, and substance, and sensible qualities. In order, however, to produce this effect, a delicate hand is required; for, by a very little inaccuracy, we are in hazard of introducing confusion, in place of promoting perspicuity. (Art. 257.)

Illus. Several rules, therefore, are necessary to be given for the proper management of metaphor. But, before entering on these, we shall give one instance of a very beautiful metaphor, that we may shew the figure to full advantage. We shall take our instance from Lord Bolingbroke's Remarks on the History of England. Just at the conclusion of his work, he is speaking of the behaviour of Charles I. to his last parliament: In a word," says he, " about a month after their meeting, he dissolved them; and, as soon as he had dissolved them, he repented; but he repented too late of his rashness. Well might he repent; for the vessel was now full. and this last drop made the waters of bitterness overflow."—" Here," he adds, " we draw the curtain, and put an end to our remarks."

Analysis. Nothing could be more happily thrown off. The metaphor, we see, is continued through several expressions. The vessel is put for the state or temper of the nation already full, that is, provoked to the highest by former oppressions and wrongs; this last drop, stands for the provocation recently received by the abrupt dissolution of the parliament; and the overflowing of the waters of bitterness, beautifully expresses all the effects of resentment let loose by an exasperated people.

Scholia. Nothing forms a more spirited and dignified conclusion of a subject than a figure of this kind happily placed at the close. We see the effect of it in this instance. The author goes off with a good grace; and leaves a strong and full impression of his subject on the reader's mind. A metaphor has frequently an advantage above a formal comparison. How much would the sentiment here have been enfeebled, if it had been expressed in the style of a regular simile, thus: "Well might he repent; for the state of the nation, loaded with grievances and provocation, resembled a vessel that was now full, and this superadded provocation, like the last drop infused, made their rage and resentment, as waters of bitterness, overflow." It has infinitely more spirit and force as it now stands, in the form of a metaphor. "Well might he repent; for the vessel was now full; and this last drop made the waters of bitterness overflow."

265. The first rule to be observed in the conduct of metaphors, is, that they be suited to the nature of the subject of which we treat: neither too many, nor too gay; nor too elevated for it; that we neither attempt to force the subject, by means of them, into a degree of elevation which is not congruous to it; nor, on the other hand, allow it to sink beow its proper dignity. (Art. 258. Illus. 3.)

Illus. 1. This is a direction which belongs to all figurative language,

and should be ever kept in view. Some metaphors are allowable, nay, beautiful in poetry, which it would be absurd and unnatural to employ in prose; some may be graceful in orations, which would be very improper in historical or philosophical composition.

2. We must remember that figures are the dress of our sentiments. 3. As there is a natural congruity between dress and the character or rank of the person who wears it, a violation of this congruity never fails to be injurious to the person; the same holds precisely as to the application of figures to sentiment.

4. The excessive or unseasonable employment of them is mere foppery in writing. It gives a boyish air to composition; and instead of raising a subject, in fact, diminishes its dignity. For, as in life, true dignity must be founded on character, not on dress and appearance, so the dignity of composition must arise from sentiment and thought, not from ornament. The affectation and parade of ornament, detract as much from an author, as they do from a man. (Art. 128.)

Corol. 1. Figures and metaphors, therefore, should, on no occasion, be stuck on too profusely; nor should they ever be such as refuse to accord with the strain of our sentiment.

2. Nothing can be more unnatural, than for a writer to carry on a strain of reasoning, in the same sort of figurative language which he would use in description. When he reasons, we look only for perspicuity; when he describes, we expect embellishment; when he divides, or relates, we desire plainness and simplicity.

Scholia. One of the greatest secrets in composition is, to know when to be simple. This always gives a heightening to ornament, in its proper place. The right disposition of the shade makes the light and colouring strike the more. "He is truly eloquent who can discourse of humble subjects in a plain style, who can treat important ones with dignity, and speak of things which are of a middle nature, in a temperate strain. For one who, upon no occasion, can express himself in a calm, orderly, distinct manner, when he begins to be on fire before his readers are prepared to kindle along with him, has the appearance of raving like a madman among persons who are in their senses, or of reeling like a drunkard, in the midst of sober company." This admonition should be particularly attended to by young practitioners in the art of writing, who are apt to be carried away by an undistinguishing admiration of what is showy and florid, whether in its place or not.t

266. The second rule which we give, respects the choice of objects, from whence metaphors, and other figures, are to be drawn.

"Is enim est eloquens, qui et humilia subtiliter, et magna graviter, et mediocria temperate, potest dicere. Nam qui nihil potest tranquille, nihil leniter, nihil definite, distincte, potest dicere, is, cum non præparatis auribus inflammare rem cæpit, furere apud sanos, et quasi inter sobrios bacchari temulentus videtur." Cicero.

What person of the least taste can bear the following passage in an historian? He is giving an account of the famous act of parliament against irregular marriages in England: "The bill," says he, "underwent a great number of alterations and amendments, which were not effected without violent contest." This is plain language, suited to the subject; and we naturally expect, that he should go on in the same strain, to tell us, that after these contests, it was carried by a great majority of voices, and obtained the royal assent. But how does he express himself in finishing the period?" At length, however, it was floated through both houses on the tide of a great majority, and steered into the safe harbour of royal approbation." Nothing can be more puerile than such language. Smollett's History of England, quoted in he Critical Review for Oct. 1761, p. 251.