1736. It was Fahrenheit, also, who first noticed the | fact that water boils at different degrees of temperature, according to the weight of the atmospheric column resting upon it-that it requires, for instance, less heat to make it boil on the summit than at the foot of a high mountain. We shall, in some future number, explain the construction and principle of the thermometer. In the mean time we extract from 'the Companion to the Almanac' for 1830, a comparison of the various scales of the thermometer which are in general use:

"A fertile cause of error in estimating and comparing the statements of temperature, is the very different manner in which they are recorded by scientific men of different nations. Wherever the English language prevails, the graduation of Fahrenheit is generally preferred. By the German authors, Römer (Reaumur) is used; and the French have, within a few years, decided to adopt that of Celsius, a Swedish philosopher, calling it "Thermomètre Centigrade." To diminish this evil, in some degree, the annexed diagram has been constructed, which shows by inspection, the expression of any point of temperature in the degrees of either or of all the above-mentioned scales; and the comparison of any degree of one with the equivalent degrees of the others."

CENTIGRADE.

been able to command for its possessor. Petty's father was a clothier, and he appears to have given his son little to set out in life with but a good education. It is said that Petty, when quite a boy, took great delight in spending his time among smiths, carpenters, and other artificers, so that at twelve years old he knew how to work at their trades. He made so great progress at the grammar-school, that at fifteen he had made himself master of French, Latin, and Greek, and understood something of mathematics and physical science. On entering the world, he went to Caen in Normandy with a little stock of merchandize, which he there improved; and on his return to England, having obtained some employment connected with the navy, he managed to save about sixty pounds before he was twenty years of age; and with this sum he repaired to the Continent, to study medicine at the foreign universities. He accordingly attended the requisite classes successively at Leyden, Utrecht, and Paris; and in about three years came home well qualified to commence practising as a physician. Having taken up his residence in this capacity at Oxford, he soon acquired for himself a distinguished reputation, and, young as he was, was appointed assistant professor of anatomy in the University. He had already also become known in the scientific world by some mechanical inventions of considerable ingenuity; and he was one of the club of inquirers who, about the year 1649, began to assemble weekly at Oxford, for philosophical investigations and experiments, and out of whose meetings eventually arose the present Royal Society. Indeed, Dr. Wallis, one of the members, in a 100 Water bois, the Baro- letter, in which he has given an account of the association, tells us that their meetings were first held "at Dr. Petty's lodgings, in an apothecary's house, because of the convenience of inspecting drugs, and the like, as there was occasion." Petty's reputation, however, rose so rapidly that, after having succeeded first to the professorship of anatomy in the university, and then to that of music in Gresham College, he was, in 1652, appointed physician to the forces in Ireland. This carried him over to that country-and eventually introduced him to a new career. In 1655 we find him appointed secretary to the Lord Lieutenant, and three years afterwards a member of the House of Commons. He was, however, soon after removed from his public employments by the Parliament which met after the death of the Protector. On the Restoration, which took place the following Fever Heat as usually year, he was made a commissioner of the Court of Claims. The remainder of his life was as busy as the portion of it already passed had been; but we have no room to enumerate the books he wrote, the ingenious schemes and inventions with which his mind was constantly teeming, and the lucrative speculations in mining, the manufacture of iron, and various other great undertakings, in which he engaged. Suffice it to say, that, after accumulating a large property, he died in London, on the 16th of December, 1687, full of honours, if not of years. The first Marquis of Lansdowne (the father of the present Marquis) was the great-grandson of Sir William Petty.

meter being 30 inches.

1970-Tallow melts.

200

-90

-190

70

-180

-80

170

174 Fahr-Alcohol
boils. Bar, 30 ins,

60

-160

-70

-150

50

1429-Bees' wax melts.

Temperate.

P

-20

10

-10

marked.

107°-Fever Heat in gene-
ral.
Blood Heat.

Summer Heat.

50-Usual Temp. of
Spring water.

Water freezes.

20-Strong Wine freezes.

May 16.-On this day, in the year 1623, was born at Rumsey, in Hampshire, the celebrated Sir William Petty, a memorable and animating example of the elevation and distinction which real talent, accompanied by activity and perseverance, has always in this country

THE VALUE OF A PENNY. It is an old saying, that "a pin a day is a groat a year," by which homely expression some wise man has intended to teach thoughtless people the value of small savings. We shall endeavour to show the value of a somewhat higher article, though a much despised one,we mean a penny.

Pennies, like minutes, are often thrown away because people do not know what to do with them. Those who are economists of time, and all the great men on record have been so, take care of the minutes, for they know that a few minutes well applied each day will make hours in the course of a week, and days in the course

of a year; and in the course of a long life they will make enough of time, if well employed, in which a man may by perseverance have accomplished some work, useful to his fellow-creatures, and honourable to himself.

try which is his calling. It may relieve him in sickness, it may contribute to the comfort of an aged father, it may assist the young man in paying back some part of that boundless debt which he owes to the care and tender anxiety of a mother, who has lived long enough to feel the want of a son's solicitude. Finally, however disposed of at the end of the year, if well disposed of, the penny saved will be a source of genuine satisfaction. The saving of it during the year has been a daily repetition of a virtuous act, which near the end of the year we have little doubt will be confirmed into a vir

Large fortunes, when gained honestly, are rarely acquired in any other way than by small savings at first; and savings can only be made by habits of industry and temperance. A saving man, therefore, while he is adding to the general stock of wealth, is setting an example of those virtues on which the very existence and happiness of society depend. There are saving peo-tuous habit. ple who are misers, and have no one good quality for which we can like them. These are not the kind of people of whom we are speaking; but we may remark that a miser, though a disagreeable fellow while alive, is a very useful person when dead. He has been compared to a tree, which, while it is growing, can be applied to no use, but at last furnishes timber for houses and domestic utensils. But a miser is infinitely more useful than a spendthrift, a mere consumer and waster, who, after he has spent all his own money, tries to spend that of other people. ·

Suppose a young man, just beginning to work for himself, could save one penny a day; and we believe there are few unmarried young workmen who could not do this. At the end of a year he would have 14. 10s. 5d., which he could safely deposit in a savings' bank, where it would lie safely with some small addition for interest, till he might want it. After five years' savings, at the rate of a penny a day, he would have between 8 and 91., which it is very possible he might find some opportunity of laying out to such advantage as to establish the foundation of his future fortune. Who has not had the opportunity of feeling some time in his life how advantageously he could have laid out such a sum of money, and how readily such a sum might have been saved by keeping all the pennies and sixpences that had been thrown away? Such a sum as 81. or 91, would enable a man to emigrate to Canada, where he might, by persevering industry, acquire enough to purchase a piece of land; and, if blessed with moderate length of life, he might be the happy cultivator of his own estate. Eight pounds would enable a mechanic, who had acquired a good character for sobriety and skill, to furnish himself on credit with goods and tools to five or six times the amount of his capital; and this might form the foundation of his future fortune.

It often happens that a clever and industrious man may have the opportunity of bettering his condition by removing to another place, or accepting some situation of trust; but the want of a little money to carry him from one place to another, the want of a better suit of clothes, or some difficulty of that kind, often stands in the way. Eight pounds would conquer all these obstacles.

It may be said that five years is too long a time to look forward to. We think not. This country is full of examples of men who have risen from beginnings hardly more than the savings of a penny, through a long course of persevering industry, to wealth and respectability. And we believe there is hardly a condition, however low, from which a young man of good principles and unceasing industry may not elevate himself.

But suppose the penny only saved during one year: at the end of it the young man finds he has got 17. 10s. 5d. Will he squander this at the ale-house, or in idle dissipation, after having had the virtue to resist temptation all through the year? We think not. This 17. 10s. 5d. may perform a number of useful offices. It may purchase some necessary implement, some good substantial article of dress, some useful books, or if well laid out, some useful instruction in the branch of indus

Suppose a dozen young men, who are fond of reading, were to contribute a penny a week to a common stock: at the end of the year they would have 21. 12s. This sum judiciously laid out, would purchase at least twelve volumes of really useful books, varying in price from three to four shillings, besides allowing some small sum for the person who took care of them and kept the accounts. Another year's saving would add another twelve volumes; and in five years the library might contain sixty volumes, including a few useful books of reference, such as dictionaries, maps, &c.-an amount of books, if well chosen, quite as much as any one of them would be able to study well in his leisure hours.

But suppose the number of contributors were doubled or trebled, the annual income would then amount to 5l. 4s., or 71. 16s., for which sum they could certainly procure as many useful books as they could possibly want. There might be some difficulty in the choice of books, as it is not always easy to know what are good and what are bad. We propose to meet this difficulty by occasional notices of particular books under the head of "The Library.' At present we will merely suggest what classes of books might gradually find admission into such a library. There are now good practical and cheap treatises on the principles of many of the branches of industry which are followed by mechanics-such as books on the elements of geometry and measuring of surfaces and solids; on arithmetic; on chemistry, and its application to the useful arts, &c.; lives of persons distinguished for industry and knowledge; descriptions of foreign countries, compiled from the best travels; maps on a pretty large scale, both of the heaven and of different parts of the earth: such books as these, with an English dictionary, a gazetteer, and some periodical work, would form a useful library, such as in a few years might be got together.

It would be impossible to enumerate all the good things that a penny will purchase; and as to all the bad things, they are not worth enumerating. But there is one which we cannot omit mentioning. A penny will buy a pennyworth of gin, and a man may spend it daily without thinking himself the worse for it. But as every penny saved tends to give a man the habit of saving pennies, so every penny spent in gin, tends to cause him to spend more. Thus the saver of the penny may at the end of the year be a healthy reputable person, and confirmed economist, with 17. 10s. 5d. in his pocket: the spender may be an unhealthy, ill-looking, worthless fellow; a confirmed gin-drinker, with nothing in his pocket except unpaid bills.

We wish it were in our power to impress strongly on the working people of this kingdom, how much happiness they may have at their command by small savings. They are by far the most numerous part of the community; and it is by their condition that the real prosperity of the country should be estimated; not by the few who live in affluence and splendour. Hard as the condition of the working classes often is, are they not yet aware that by industry, frugality, and a judicious combination of their small resources, they can do more to make themselves happy, than anybody else can do for them?

MIRABEAU.

M. DUMONT, of Geneva, a distinguished writer on jurisprudence, who died about two years ago, has left behind him a most interesting work, entitled Recollections of Mirabeau, and of the two first Legislative Assemblies.' This work has been received throughout Europe as one of great merit and importance, and deservedly so; for it contains, in a brief space, the best account we have read of the most extraordinary part of the life of one of the most extraordinary men of modern times; and with it, the first impulses and movement of the French Revolution.

land, he had attentively investigated the practical part of government: he was the only man that entered the National Assembly well acquainted with the necessary, forms and true spirit of a representative government; all the rest had to learn their rudiments. There was talent-there was even genius in abundance-but all these new legislators were theorists; Mirabeau was the only practical man.

In the second place, he had a wonderful art (which he had also acquired during his misfortunes, when his poverty obliged him to write and compile books and pamphlets for his living) of readily availing himself of the assistance of other men, and of working up their materials so as to make them appear his own. The whole matter of many of Mirabeau's most admired speeches was furnished by M. Dumont himself, or by another citizen of Geneva, M. Duroverai; and, generally, he laid under contribution the information and experience of all his associates. When he was deficient on any point, or what was more frequently the case, pressed for time, he would assemble these gentlemen, and from their conversation, their notes, or digested essays, get up all he wanted, and proceed forthwith to astonish the Assembly with his wonderful fund of knowledge and flashes of eloquence. But that eloquence, it must be said, did really make the matter his own; his powers of adaptation were as great as those of invention in other men.

This most extraordinary man, whose character is still a problem to most of those who knew him, was Honoré Gabriel Riquetti de Mirabeau, who ruled the National Assembly, who directed the political opinions of twenty-five millions of men for two years together, and who was, for that period, what has been cleverly termed "the intellectual Dictator of France." This champion for the people was born a noble; his father was the Marquis de Mirabeau, of whose ancestors we know nothing; but, on his mother's side, he could boast a descent of which even those who dislike or care not for aristocracy, might be proud; for she was grand-daughter of Riquet, constructor of the famous canal of Languedoc. Mirabeau was ugly in face almost to hideousness; and he was perfectly conscious of this; for, in writing to a lady who had never seen him, he told her to fancy the face of a tiger that had been marked with the smallpox, and then she would have an idea of his counte-placable; but he seems to have had no objection to a nance; and at a later period, when his voice and gesture and appearance struck the National Assembly with awe, he was accustomed to say, if any of its members had shown refractoriness during his absence, "I will go down to the House and show them my wild boar's head*, and that will silence them!"

All the circumstances of the times were favourable to his ambition and his wonderful talents and energy; but perhaps no man ever begun public life with more disadvantages, as regarded his own character, against him. He had been seventeen times in prison; he had deserted his own, and run away with other men's wives; he had had the most scandalous lawsuits with his own family; had been condemned as a criminal; exiled; executed in effigy; he had written and published one of the most depraved of books; had led the most dissipated and obscene of lives; and was known to be a dangerous enemy to those he hated, and an unsure friend to those he pretended to love. The morals of the French capital had been reduced in the days of despotism to a degraded standard; but, according to Dumont, when the name of Mirabeau was first read in the National Assembly among those elected to represent the French nation, it was hissed and hooted by all present.

In spite, however, of all this, in a few weeks he was everything with those men who had considered themselves disgraced by being associated with him; and gathering influence and power by bounds, and not by slow steps, he became almost the absolute master of the National Assembly, the mass of whose members he moved and controlled with as much facility as the Italian showman moves his wooden puppets. His talents and energy were indeed, as we have characterized them-wonderful, and so was his eloquence; but these qualities would not of themselves have given him the supremacy he obtained. There were two other advantages in his favour: the first of which we have never heard sufficient importance given to the second, of which M. Dumont alone has clearly, and it appears to us, honestly, stated. During his long imprisonments, Mirabeau had profoundly studied the science of politics; and during his exile in foreign countries, and particularly in Eng* In French, la hurë.

Mirabeau's hatred to the ancient despotism was im

constitutional monarchy. Great obscurity still hangs over these matters; but it is said that, seeing the democratic principle was gaining too much strength, and the revolution going too far, he had undertaken to stop its march, and that the negociations with the Court of the unfortunate Louis XVI., which were notorious, had for their object the prevention of a republic, and the establishment of a limited monarchy. His will had hitherto been law; he had ruled and played with all parties and factions-but whether he could now have succeeded to the utmost of his wish-whether he could now have quieted the storm he had mainly raised, and on which he had floated, we cannot determine; for at the very crisis, at the time when he was supposed to hold the destinies of his country in his hands, he died in the forty-second year of his age, after a most agonizing illness of five days, brought on by his detestable excesses. His funeral was rather an apotheosis than a human entombment." Nearly all Paris followed his body to the church of Sainte Geneviève, thenceforward entitled the Pantheon; the melancholy music, the thousand torches, and the intermittent cannon, producing an effect which has been forcibly described by many eye-witnesses; and those who had feared and hated him, those who had been literally enchanted by his eloquence and genius, saw the grave closed over Mirabeau with awe and feelings that never can be described.

66

The career of Mirabeau offers a few consolatory remarks to those who are gifted with no extraordinary faculties, either for good or for evil. Mirabeau swayed the destinies of millions, but he was never happy ;Mirabeau had almost reached the pinnacle of human power, and yet he fell a victim to the same evil passions which degrade and ruin the lowest of mankind. He could never be really great, because he was never freed from the bondage of his own evil desires. The man who steadily pursues a consistent course of duty, which has for its object to do good to himself and to all around him, will be followed to the grave by a few humble and sincere mourners, and no record will remain, except in the hearts of those who loved him, to tell of his earthly career. But that man may gladly leave to such as Mirabeau the music, the torches, and the cannon, by which a nation proclaimed its loss; for assuredly he has

insect race, emerges from the water, where it passes its aurelia state, about six ing process which is called composition. There are