college. In Bede's time the discipline established by St. Columba still survived at Iona. Here and elsewhere the priests were denominated, not monks, but Culdees, from a Celtic term still in use, which signifies merely a person given to retirement and solitary meditation. The introduction of the papal rule eventually substituted every where for the Culdees some order of regular monks. At Iona the successors of Columba, after some centuries of undisturbed tranquillity, which their noted learning and sanctity procured for them, notwithstanding the continual contests of the barbarous and ferocious tribes by which they were surrounded, were at last in the year 807, driven from their ancient shelter by an incursion of the Danes, those unscrupulous pirates, whom even the cross rarely deterred when a booty worth the seizing tempted them on. After this the place remained for many years untenanted-till it was again taken possession of by a detachment of monks of the order of St. Benedict, from the famous Abbey of Cluny, who occupied it till the Reformation. After the Isle of Man ceased to be a part of the Scottish dominions, the Church of Iona was the Cathedral of the Bishop of the Isles; and that dignity it retained till the establishment of Presbyterianism. This and the other sacred buildings, however, which once existed on the island, were, according to the common account, reduced very nearly to the ruined state in which they now remain, at the era of the Reformation.

The principal monuments of the past which are yet to be seen at Iona are the ruins of the cathedral church of St. Mary, of a nunnery, of five chapels, and of a building called the Bishop's House. Of these buildings, the most ancient is, beyond all doubt, much more recent than the time of Columba. His erection was probably of wattles, the material then generally used for building in this country. Of the existing remains, Dr. Macculloch, who published a description of the Western Isles in 1819, is of opinion, that that called St. Oran's Chapel is the most ancient; and it may, perhaps, be referred to the Saxon age. Next to this edifice, in point of antiquity, may be reckoned the nunnery. The arches here are also round; and the foundation of the building may probably be referred to a period beyond the twelfth century. The most extensive ruin is that of the church,

of which our wood-cut gives a representation. It is in the form of a cross, surmounted at the intersection of the nave and the transept by a square tower of about seventy feet in height. The length of the transept is 70 feet, and that of the body of the church, from east to west, 120 feet. Of this building, the part to the eastward of the tower, is apparently the most ancient; and it may probably be assigned to the thirteenth century. The arches are pointed, and the shafts of the pillars are cylindrical and plain, as they are usually found to be in buildings of the Norman age. The great window in the eastern gable of this church has been much admired. For a more minute description of the different buildings, the reader may consult Dr. Johnson's Journey to the Hebrides. When Dr. Johnson was here in 1773, the chapel of the nunnery was used as a cowhouse, and was covered to the depth of several feet with dung. The Doctor, accompanied by his friend Boswell, and their host Mr. Maclean, during the night they spent in Iona, lay together in a barn on straw, with their portmanteaus for their pillows. The eloquent passage with which Johnson introduces his account of the place was given as a distinct paragraph in our last number.

The monuments of the dead with which this sacred soil was formerly crowded, and many vestiges of which still remain, are perhaps more interesting than the dilapidated walls which rise in the midst of them. Forty-eight kings of Scotland, four of Ireland, and eight of Norway, are said to have been buried in Iona, in three separate enclosures, each bearing a Latin inscription, intimating to which class of the illustrious dead it was appropriated. These inscriptions seem to have been legible in Buchanan's days; but they are now wholly obliterated, and the royal cemetery indeed is reduced to a few slight ridges formed by some broken arches built under the ground. It is known by the name of the Ridge of Kings. Of the other tombs most of the inscriptions are in Saxon characters; but Dr. Macculloch states that there are also a few in which the Celtic language and alphabet are used, though among these he could discover none with dates. Among the ornamental sculptures the most interesting which he observed were some ancient ships.

POETRY OF COMMON LIFE. THERE is a little book printed at Sheffield, bearing the title of 'Poetry of Common Life, consisting of 198 pages of selections from the poetry of Wordsworth, Crabbe, Bloomfield, Southey, Goldsmith, Campbell, Burns, Bowles, and one or two others less celebrated. These names will give to most readers a notion of what they may expect to find; but, to those who are not acquainted with the works of any of the writers named, we should say, that the poems selected relate to very natural and simple things, are always easy to be understood by unlearned persons, and, for the most part, touch those feelings and affections which are common to all mankind.

The preface explains how the various sorts and styles of poetry have arisen, and the writer then says, "Though all men have the same feeling, yet at different times and in different classes of society some feelings will be predominant over others; nor will the same feelings always be excited in the same way. For instance, a very rud people will be most delighted by the poetry which tells of the warlike actions of their fathers: a religious people will be most fond of devotional poetry: a people in a very high state of refinement will enjoy a poetry which goes deeply into the workings of our minds and affections, and awakens feelings absolutely unintelligible to men in a less advanced condition. But although all persons may thus be unable to enjoy the same poetry, yet every one would enjoy poetry of some kind or other, if he could meet with any of the kind suitable to his own case; that is, if it was addressed to those feelings which are most alive within his own breast, and expressed in language which he could understand." This is the reason why Crabbe and Goldsmith have always been popular. Their poetry is suitable to the case of the majority of the middle and lower classes in this country; they describe scenes and occurrences which are familiar in the course of every-day life in England; and they borrow nothing from times past, nothing from foreign countries, and nothing from mythology or romance. There is, therefore, no impediment to the common people relishing such pieces as 'The Mourner,' or 'The Village Alehouse,' and every reason why they should relish poetry of such a description. Again, Campbell's lines On the Departure of the Emigrants for New South Wales, can scarcely fail to please and cheer the wanderers who have need of high and strong hopes in quitting the land of their fathers for distant countries. But, in poetry, excellence and universality go constantly together, of which a remarkable example may be found in Goethe, whose works are held in admiration and reverence by the whole German world, for that great master knew well the chords that touched the hearts of his countrymen of all sorts and conditions. Sir Walter Scott's novels may be mentioned as an example of the same kind; and we should think it easy to select from Lord Byron's works an abundance of passages that would receive the stamp of pure gold if all mankind were to compose the jury of assayers. We are happy to recommend this cheap volume; for there is great need in this country of raising, among the people, a sentiment of admiration for what is beautiful, and of kindling a spirit of enthusiasm towards all that is great and good in nature and in art. It would be a great mistake to suppose that the diffusion of such a spirit would lead to habits of idleness or the neglect of the cares of men's callings, or would divert their attention from the practice of their moral and religious duties. A poetical imagination is a source of continual refreshment amidst the labours and cares of a busy life, and if its influence cannot perpetually be preserved, it is the greater reason why its occasional presence is the more desirable. Life is, in truth, so short, that if men do not quickly begin to exercise those feelings which connect them with the unknown world, they will be in danger of passing through their term of

existence altogether mechanically, like the machinery of a clock. The Germans use the word "liebe," love, as expressing the relish which the influence of poetry or sentiment gives for things otherwise uninteresting. Goëthe has said, "Life outweighs all things if love lies within it'-(Das leben uberwiegt alles, wenn die liebe in seiner schaale liegt); and this is true, both as expressing the influence of a poetic sentiment in raising the value of life, and as alluding to that double joy which animates every man who is sustained by the mutual love of the one object most dear to himself.

PAY OF SOLDIERS IN THE REIGN OF EDWARD III.

THE King's army in France, Normandy, and before Calais, besides the Lords, consisted of 31,294 combatants and attendants, and their pay for one year and 131 days amounted to £127,201 2s. 9d. The following specification of particulars will furnish an idea of the military pay and service of this time :

"To Edward, Prince of Wales, being in the King's service in Normandy, France, and before Calais, with his retinue, for his wages of war 20s. a day; eleven bannarets, every one taking 4s. a day; 102 knights, each 2s. a day; 264 esquires, each 12d. a day; 384 archers on horseback, each 6d. a day; 69 foot archers, each 3d. a day; 513 Welshmen, whereof one chaplain at 6d. a day, one physician, one herald or cryer, 5 ensigns, 25 serjeants or officers over 20 men, each 4d. a day; 480 footmen, each 2d. a day.

"To Henry Earl of Lancaster, being in the King's service before Calais, with his retinue and one other earl, each 6s. and Sd. a day; eleven bannerets, each 4s. a day; 193 knights, each 2s. a day; 512 esquires, each 12d. a day; 46 men at arms and 612 archers on horseback, each 6d. a day.

"To William Bohun, Earl of Northampton, and his retinue, at the same rate.

"To Thomas Hatfield, Bishop of Durham, 6s. 8d. per day; 3 bannerets, 48 knights, 164 esquires, 81 archers on horseback, as above.

"To Ralf, Baron Stafford, and his retinue, as above.” These things appear in a contemporary record, published by Dr. Brady in his History of England. See vol. ii.-Appendix, p. 88.

Effects of the Scurvy.-Mr. Walker, who was the Chaplain Seas in 1740-1744, thus describes the effects of scurvy on to the Centurion in Commodore Anson's voyage to the South board ship: :-"It often produced putrid fevers, pleurisies, the jaundice, and violent rheumatic pains; and sometimes it occasioned an obstinate costiveness, which was generally attended with a difficulty of breathing, and this was esteemed the most deadly of all the scorbutic symptoms: at other times the whole body, but more especially the legs, were subject to ulcers of the worst kind, attended with rotten bones, and such a luxuriancy of fungous flesh, as yielded to no remedy. But a most extraordinary circumstance, and what would be scarcely credible upon any single evidence, is, that the scars of wounds which had been for many years healed, were forced open again by this virulent distemper. Of this there was a remarkable instance in one of the invalids on board the Centurion, who had been wounded above fifty years before at the battle of the Boyne; for though he was cured soon after, and had continued well for a great number wounds, in the progress of his disease, broke out afresh, and years past, yet on his being attacked by the scurvy, his appeared as if they never had been healed. Nay, what is still more astonishing, the callus of a broken bone, which had been completely formed for a long time, was found to be hereby dissolved, and the fracture seemed as if it had never been consolidated. Indeed, the effects of this disease were, in almost every instance, wonderful; for many of our people, though confined to their hammocks, appeared to have least moved, though it was only from one part of the ship to no inconsiderable share of health, and yet on their being the the other, have immediately expired." How gratifying is it to know that the scurvy is now almost entirely eradicated in

of

the navy. This desirable change has been produced partly by great attention to the cleanliness, diet, and comfort of the men, and partly by the constant use of the acid of lemon, which is a simple and effectual preventive. As long ago as the year 1600, Commodore Lancaster, on a voyage to the Cape of Good Hope, preserved his crew in health by administering three table spoonsful of lemon-juice every morning to each of his men; while on board the other three ships of his squadron, where this precaution was neglected, the hands were so short through disease, that the vessels were unmanageable. And yet lemon-juice was not generally used in the British navy till 1795. In 1780 there were 1457 cases of scurvy received into Haslar Hospital; in 1806 one case only.

CO-OPERATIVE LABOURERS.

MANY of our readers are no doubt aware that some well-intentioned men have been endeavouring for a long time to effect a great change in society, by establishing a new arrangement, called Co-operation, which assumes that the labourers should be at the same time the capitalists. There can be no sort of objection to this principle, when it is proposed to carry it into action without any prejudice to the existing laws of property; and, no doubt, many of the evils of our social state might be removed, were all persons concerned in the business of production to have a sort of proprietary interest in the commodities produced. The mistake of those who exclusively call themselves co-operatives is, that of assuming that the love of individual property can be got rid of by a very short process of reasoning, and neglecting to avail themselves of the many practical modes in which industry might be made more productive than at present by a union of forces, in which the personal interests of every labourer would be dependant upon the success of the business in which he is engaged. There are many examples of such real co-operation already existing in the world, some of which we may mention, from time to time. We shall now state a few facts regarding the mode of navigating vessels in the Mediterranean, by men having a common proprietorship.

With the exception of some large ships that belong to wealthy merchants of Hydra, Spezzia, &c., chiefly employed on the corn trade in the Black Sea, nearly all the Greek vessels are navigated by men taking fixed shares of the profits or freights obtained. The captain has more shares than the common men, and so has the second in command, who is generally intrusted with the contabiliti or accounts. When the vessel is small and the voyage short, it is sometimes the custom for each individual to lay in his own wine and provisions; but the general practice is for the captain or the second to purchase a stock for the whole, the amount of which is put on the debtor side of the account, and at the end of the voyage subtracted from the gains made, the distribution being fairly conducted during the voyage. The same system is found nearly all over the Mediterranean. The Neapolitans, the Sicilians, and the Genoese, rarely navigate in any other way.

The Italian captain has sometimes a share in the vessel, which proportionately increases his share in the profits. He is occasionally, though rarely except when the craft is very small, the sole proprietor; but even in the latter case the men are engaged just in the same way. A small vessel called a " Bovo," or a " Paranza," of not more than sixty tons, not worth £150, is often held by as many as six or ten different proprietors.

From the town of La Torre dell' Annunziata in the Bay of Naples, there is a coral-fishery carried on. They sometimes fish about Sardinia, but the great place is on the coast of Africa near Bona. They leave Naples in little fleets of four, six, or eight open boats, and availing themselves of the fine summer season, venture right across the Mediterranean. These boats are navigated on the same principle. Sometimes the boat is the united property of

the men in it, who give one of their number a larger share of the profit on account of his superior nautical skill or experience in the fishery. The abstemious manner in which these Mediterranean sailors (Italians, Greeks, Sclavonians, Spaniards, Provençals and all) live is astonishing. Bread, legumes, olives, salt-fish, a little maccaroni, are their sole support. They scarcely ever taste meat. A large portion of the shore-boats that ply about the harbour at Smyrna, are manned by Sclavonians from about the Bocca di Cattaro, and by our subjects the Maltese. On an average each boat has two men; to them the boat belongs, and they divide their profits every evening. When an old boat is to be repaired, or a new one bought, the two partners club together; or sometimes, in the case of the purchase of a new boat, a third party is admitted, who receives a given share of what the boat makes.

In the Italian ships such of the sailors as have a little money are allowed to invest it in goods, and to carry these goods with them, disposing of them as they choose at the ports they touch at or are bound to. This is called the "Paccotiglia." Intelligent and prudent sailors often make more money this way than by their shares in freight.

Those who have attended to this system state that the sailors are deficient in discipline; but they also observe that in proportion as the men are of a steady and intelligent character, this evil vanishes. It is no doubt true that mutual interests can only be properly understood by men far advanced in civilization. Ignorance is always selfish.

THE WEEK.

NOVEMBER 24.-On this day, in the year 1713, was born at Clonmell, in Ireland, Laurence Sterne, the celebrated author of Tristram Shandy' and the 'Sentimental Journey. His father was Roger Sterne, a lieutenant in the army, a younger son of Dr. Sterne, Archbishop of York. The subject of the present notice, therefore, although a native of Ireland, was, like Berkeley, Goldsmith, Swift, and several other men of original genius who have been born in that country, an Englishman by descent. He also received nearly the whole of his education in England, having been sent to school at Halifax, in Yorkshire, in 1722. Even at this early age he appears to have given such indications of the vivacity of his genius as arrested the attention of discriminating observers. One day, as he has himself related, he had been tempted to scrawl his name in large letters on the whitewashed wall of the school-room. The usher, on detecting the misdemeanour, sentenced the culprit to the usual punishment; but the master of the school on learning what had occurred, declared that the name should never be obliterated from the wall, as it was one which he was certain would in due time secure to itself no common distinction. On leaving school Sterne was entered of Jesus College, Cambridge, his friends having fixed upon the church as his profession. Their choice was, as too frequently happens, directed more by other considerations than by any regard to his inclination or fitness for the sacred office. Accordingly, when Sterne, some time after leaving the university, obtained, by the interest of a brother of his father, the living of Sutton in Yorkshire, he appears to have entered upon the enjoyment of its temporalities without giving himself much trouble about its duties. He spent his time, it is said, chiefly in shooting, in the practice of music and painting, and in light and discursive reading. In 1741 he married; and soon after, through a relation of his wife, he was appointed to the living of Stillington in the same county, which he held in conjunction with the former. He also enjoyed a prebend in the cathedral of York, which he owed to his uncle. This was all the preferment he ever obtained in the church till, after he had made himself known as a writer, Lord Faulconberg