New Mexico, North Dakota, Ohio, Virginia. In 9 States and Territories there are no medical boards at all, and all laws on the practice of medicine are left to enforce themselves, and consequently have little effect, as can be seen in Kansas and Wisconsin.

In New York the medical examining boards are placed under the direction of the State Board of Regents, in Pennsylvania under a Medical Council, in the District of Columbia under a Board of Medical Supervisors.

a Board of censors of Alabama State Medical Association; also county boards under its authority. b Appointed by governor; medical schools not mentioned.

c Each.

d6 regular, 2 homeopathic, 1 eclectic.

el for each judicial district, and 1 for the State at large for homeopaths and eclectics.

f2 regular, 1 homeopathic, 1 eclectic, and 3 ex-officio-governor, attorney-general, superintendent of public instruction.

g5 regular, 3 homeopathic, 1 eclectic.

h4 regular, 2 homeopathic, 1 eclectic.

i Appointed by State medical society.

36 regular, 2 homeopathic, 1 lawyer.

k No one school to have a majority of the board.

11 board for each judicial district; appointed by the district judge.

m Must have 5 homeopathic.

A full report of the results of the examinations conducted by the different boards has not been obtained, but the following presentation was made by Dr. Perry H. Millard, of St. Paul, Minn., before the American Academy of Medicine, at Baltimore, May 6, 1895:1

One of the difficulties liable to arise from having independent boards for the dif ferent schools of medicine is that the character of the examinations may vary so much as to have a serious effect on the applications of students. If one examining board allows all applicants, except 5 per cent, to pass successfully, while another board rejects 30 or 35 per cent of its applicants, it will not be long before the students will be seeking the lenient board, for after receiving a registration certificate there is nothing to hinder a candidate from practicing according to whatever system he prefers, even if he be registered by another board; and unless he choose to make known what system he follows it need not become known at all except to those who examine the records. It is useless to expect students to apply to one board when they have a far greater probability of being successful before another. The leniency of the boards will be considered by students when beginning the study of medicine. Even if the different boards had no intention whatever of influencing students in this way, the result would be the same, the student never considering the motive at all. Some variation must necessarily occur in the per cent of students rejected, just as the per cent rejected at different times by the same board will vary. In New York the results of the examinations for the year ending August 1, 1895, were as follows:

There should be as near an approach to uniformity as possible in the per cent of rejections, and in order to secure this all applicants might be required to pass the same examination in all subjects except practice and materia medica. In such subjects as anatomy, physiology, and chemistry there certainly can be no room for different schools, and the same applies equally well in obstetrics and surgery. This method is probably adopted where there are mixed boards, or else the boards avoid questions which would be answered differently by different schools.

BENEFACTIONS.

In 1894 Mr. William Deering gave to the medical school of Northwestern University, Chicago, Ill., $50,000 to endow the N. S. Davis professorship of physiology. He had given in 1890 $20,000 toward the purchase of the land on which the schools of medicine and pharmacy are located.

In 1893 Dr. Ephraim Ingals gave the medical school of Northwestern University $10,000 to aid the construction of the laboratory building.

SCHOLARSHIPS IN MEDICAL SCHOOLS.

Reference is intended to be made here to schools of medicine, for scholarships and theological schools are almost contradictory terms. The chief end of a scholarship being instruction without cost to the student, and tuition fees occurring as rare exceptions in theological schools, there is little association between the words. The benefits of scholarships in medical and law schools would be recognized at once,

1 Some slight errors will be observed in the table, but we give it as found.

but it would be as readily recognized that they are not of frequent occurrence. From the munificence of wealthy individuals universities and colleges and theological schools have received liberal endowments and expensive buildings and apparatus, but medical and law schools have been left to depend upon their own resources. Wherever a theological seminary has not been endowed it is sustained by funds received from churches or societies, tuition fees not being considered an element in sustaining the institution. In the table of theological schools in the Commissioner's Report for 1888-89, only 8 seminaries are reported as having received tuition fees, and 4 of these were colored schools, which are usually supported by the gifts of friends, which in these instances were possibly accredited to tuition fees. Not only do theological students receive free instruction, but in a large number of cases their board and lodging are also furnished them.

In the reports received from law schools in 1894-95 40 scholarships are said to have been given to students. This does not average 1 scholarship to each school. In the 23 schools of law which form part of State universities tuition fees are charged with but three exceptions, so that the law schools are really not supported by the States. In the medical schools 295 scholarships are said to have been bestowed, but many of these are not scholarships in a strict sense. Thirteen, carrying possibly the largest amounts in the aggregate, were in the Harvard medical school. The scholarship having the largest amount of any, $700, was in the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York.

In the Leonard medical school of Shaw University, Raleigh, N. C., an institution for the education of colored students in medicine, there were 56 students in attendance, and 56 scholarships are reported to have been given. This probably is equivalent to saying that the medical school was supported entirely by charitable contributions, no tuition being charged.

Quite a number of medical schools, especially of those not fully established and which are anxious to secure a large attendance, make a reduction in annual charges to young men of limited means. Others make reductions to sons of ministers and physicians. Notice is intended to be taken here, however, only of those scholarships which are bestowed from the income of invested funds or which are contributed directly by friends, and not of those instances where new schools remit charges in order to obtain students.

In the medical school of Harvard University, Boston, Mass., 13 scholarships were distributed in 1894-95. There are 2 Barringer scholarships of $300 and $200, respectively, the Cheever scholarship of $200, the Isaac Sweetser scholarship of $200, 4 faculty scholarships of $200 each, the Claudius M. Jones scholarship, the Orlando W. Doe scholarship, the Charles Pratt Strong scholarship of $100, the Lewis and Harriet Hayden scholarship of $100 for colored students, and the income of the John Foster fund, amounting to about $150, payable every other year. There are also 3 fellowships in the medical school, established by Mr. William S. Bullard, amounting to $225 each.

The Boston University school of medicine (homeopathic) has 2 alumni scholarships besides the Garfield and Wade scholarships. The Fenno Tudor loan fund provides for loans, in sums not exceeding $50, to meritorious young women. The George Russell loan fund does the same for young men.

The woman's medical school of Northwestern University, Chicago, Ill., has 5 endowed scholarships for missionaries. One of these was endowed by Mrs. Chandler, of Detroit, Mich., in behalf of the Woman's Presbyterian Board of Missions of the Northwest. The Woman's Methodist Foreign Missionary Society has 2 perpetual scholarships, endowed by Mrs. Emily W. N. Schofield. Mrs. Schofield also endowed 1 scholarship for the Woman's Missionary Board of the Congregational Church. The medical department of Columbian University, Washington, D. C., by means of a liberal endowment from the late W. W. Corcoran, is enabled to give 6 free scholarships.

In the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York City, through the generosity of the late Alonzo Clark, for many years president of the College of Physicians and Surgeons and professor of pathology and practical medicine, a scholarship with an income of about $700 a year is bestowed for the purpose of promoting the discovery of new facts in medical science. There are also 2 alumni fellowships, open to graduates of the College of Physicians and Surgeons, which have an annual value of $500 each, besides entitling the holders to free instruction in any of the schools of Columbia College.

In the Woman's Medical College of the New York Infirmary there are 2 scholarships founded by the children of Mr. and Mrs. Robert Haydock, who were among the incorporators and first trustees of the institution. Students sent by missionary boards to prepare for missionary work get a reduction of one-half from the annual charge.

In the Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania, at Philadelphia, the incomo from funds left for the purpose by Ann Preston, M. D., Robert J. Dodd, M. D., Hannah

W. Richardson, and Isaiah V. Richardson, enables the college to assist annually a limited number of women who are adapted to the profession of medicine, but are unable to secure a medical education without such aid. Four students may also be admitted at a reduction of $35 each year from the regular fees, upon presentation of a certificate from a missionary society stating definitely the intention of the applicant to prosecute medical work abroad under the direction of the society, and that she will receive from the society pecuniary assistance in obtaining a medical education.

The University of Pennsylvania gave 16 scholarships entitling to free tuition, 3 of them being obtained in competitive examination.

The Marion-Sims College of Medicine, St. Louis, Mo., through the liberality of certain friends of the institution, has 5 scholarships which entitle the holder to free instruction.

The Leonard medical school of Shaw University, Raleigh, N. C., an institution for the education of the colored race, has a fund of $5,000, received from the late Judson Wade Leonard, of Hampden, Mass., the income of which is used to furnish scholarships for young men in the medical school. It also received $1,000 from the John F. Slater fund, which was used for the same purpose.

REQUIREMENT OF ACADEMIC DEGREES FROM MEDICAL STUDENTS.

Not many years ago any young man, after spending a few months of preparatory study in a physician's office, could matriculate in probably any medical school in the United States, and, moreover, in only eighteen months he could come out of almost any medical school with his diploma. As a result young men from all sides were being graduated as doctors of medicine, although their medical knowledge was necessarily very limited. They were given diplomas certifying that they had been examined and found learned in all things pertaining to medicine and surgery. Fortunately, however, the diploma was usually in Latin, so that the truthfulness of the statement would not likely be called in question. Afterwards, with increasing numbers of students, the medical colleges demanded three years of attendance, and when this did not perceptibly diminish the number of students, another year was added, making four years in the medical courses. The graduation requirements were made higher and higher, but the qualifications for entrance remained practically unchanged.

In reply to inquiries of the Journal of the American Medical Association, January 12, 1895, we find the following from the medical department of Yale University: "I have felt for some time that an increase in the matriculation requirement was more needed in this country than the increase of time of study-that is, that three years with well-prepared students would be better for the profession than a larger number of students kept at their professional work for a year longer. This opinion, however, does not seem to be the one which has prevailed."

With few exceptions the doors are still open to any one, the only regulations having reference to time to be spent. One important exception to this statement is in New York, where the regulations of the regents of the State University are such as to require a good secondary education before matriculation.

The medical school of Johns Hopkins University was the first to come out boldly and demand a college degree as a requisite for admission to the full course.

Harvard medical school is another to take an advance step on this question. President Eliot has already mentioned the year 1900 as an appropriate time to inaugurate the change. In the divinity school of Harvard an academic degree has been a prerequisite to entrance for some years, and in 1896 it will also be demanded of all students taking the regular course in the law school.

Since the above was written the faculty of the medical school of Harvard University, at a meeting held January 4, 1896, adopted the following resolutions:

"In and after June, 1901, candidates for admission to the medical school must present a degree in arts, literature, philosophy, science, or medicine from a recognized college or scientific school, with the exception of such persons of suitable age and attainments as may be admitted by a special vote of the faculty taken in each case. "All candidates, whether presenting a degree or not, are and will be required to satisfy the faculty that they had a course in theoretical and descriptive (inorganic) chemistry and qualitative analysis sufficient to fit them to pursue the courses in chemistry given at the medical school."

The courses in law, theology, and medicine are naturally post-graduate studies, and if our lawyers and doctors are not to be college graduates, who shall be, besides ministers and college professors? In theological schools it has not been difficult to secure attendance of students with degrees, for there, on account of assistance of churches or societies, the expenses of students amount to but little. In the law schools heretofore the course of study has not been so extended that young men could not complete it at a reasonable age, but it is difficult to see how, under present conditions, all medical students can be required to take a full college course before

entering upon professional studies and at the same time begin their professional careers at a suitable age. They do not complete the college course until 22 or 23 years of age, and as nearly all medical schools have adopted courses of four years young men will be about 27 years of age before they can finish the medical course, and will be about 30 years old before they can be expected to support a family. If all medical students must be supported until they have completed college and professional courses at 27 years of age, it will soon be impossible for young men from the ordinary walks of life to complete a medical course at all.

It is claimed, however, by those who believe in a full, liberal education for all medical students, that if the elementary and secondary education of pupils was properly conducted, and if there was a better correlation of secondary and higher studies, young men would be prepared for entering college at an earlier age. There can be no question but that progress in elementary studies could be much more rapid, especially in rural schools, if they had efficient teachers and supervisors. With the general improvement being constantly made in the public schools it is reasonable to conclude that in a few more years there will be nothing to hinder young men from receiving a full, liberal education and also completing a course in medicine at a much earlier age than is now possible.

President Eliot has said:

"The average age of admission to Harvard College at this moment is fully 19. The student who stays there four years to get his A. B. is 23 when he graduates, He then goes to our medical school to stay there four years; so he is 27 years of age before he even has his medical degree, and we all know that some years intervene between that achievement and competency to support a family. Now, that highly educated young man ought to have been married at 25.

"The remedies for this state of things-which is really intolerable, and which particularly ought not to exist in a country so new as ours-are somewhat complex. They, in the first place, must include an improvement in the secondary schools of the country, whereby the boys may learn a great deal more and yet come out of them earlier. The proper age for secondary education in our country is between 13 and 18, not higher. Then I must frankly say that for years I have been in favor of reducing the ordinary term of residence for the degree of B. A. to three years, an out and out square reduction from four to three years."

At the medical congress in Baltimore, in 1895, Dr. Perry H. Millard, of Minnesota, stated that while it is too early for medical colleges generally to require an academic degree before admission, the standard of entrance requirements should nevertheless be raised. He suggested as a general standard that all medical students be required to show a certificate of matriculation in some college or university, or else undergo an examination to indicate an equivalent preparation. Some higher and more easily ascertainable standard of entrance requirements than the present indefinite regulations will have to be adopted before general satisfaction will be obtained.

Columbia University, New York, allows senior students of the college to elect studies in the professional schools, the purpose being, according to President Low, to shorten the time required for completion of a professional course. In the first year of the adoption of the four years' course in medicine there was a decline in the percentage of students with degrees from 40 to 36 per cent. He says students can not postpone professional studies until 22 or 23 years of age, while in England and Germany professional studies are taken up at 19 or 20 years of age, and especially since the age for completion of a professional course should be earlier in a new country than in an older one. According to President Low the trouble is that the college course has been lifted out of its proper place and away from its appropriate ages, namely, 16 to 20, and as a result young men go directly from the high school to the professional school.

One indirect advantage to be derived from the plan of Columbia, of allowing selection of professional studies in the senior year, is that students after beginning professional studies in the university will probably continue them, whereas otherwise law students especially might begin professional training in private offices of attorneys, and so be deprived of the full discipline and equipment in legal knowledge to be obtained in a law school.

Prior to the establishment of the common schools, the courses in any of the colleges could be entered upon at an earlier age than at present. This was not attributable to better instruction in the schools, for it was probably not equal to that of present times, but the boys who expected to enter upon a collegiate course had their studies shaped to meet the college requirements, even from the time of entering the grammar grades. There were many schools having as their declared purpose the preparation of boys for certain higher institutions, and all of the instruction was designed to meet this end, and the success of the school was determined in large measure by the readiness with which its pupils attained collegiate matriculation. As the result of this concentration of efforts and purpose upon the accomplishment of a particular object, the boys rarely failed to reach the standard required, even at the early age