No. 28.

THE RELATION OF MAN TO THE EXTERNAL WORLD.

THE proper study of mankind is man,' said the poetic moralist, and all experience confirms the observation. Amidst the manifold objects, the rich and varied phenomena to which man has directed his intellectual eye, none can attract his notice and rivet his attention so powerfully as his own nature. In this all art, all science, every department of human knowledge and activity, have their common root; all of them, from the highest to the lowest, flow out of that nature which man possesses, receive from it their peculiar meaning, and can only be rightly judged and valued by reference to its wants and capacities. Hence the study of humanity is at once the most manifold and the most comprehensive that can be conceived, and also the most generally interesting, presenting an inexhaustible abundance of matter, which can be viewed from various sides, in a thousand shades of colour, in innumerable changes of light, so as to be adapted to the taste and comprehension of all.

Yet, singularly enough, no subject seems of late more neglected. Metaphysical speculation, for which this country was at one time so famous, is now almost unknown; and even the more popular branches of the science of mind are rarely touched. Hence crude and hurtful notions of the true nature of man, and his relation to the universe, generally prevail, and the most absurd and irreligious theories find currency among the people. Each of these may be refuted as it arises, but it is only expelled to be succeeded by another, perhaps more eloquently expressed, or skilfully disguised, but not less false and prejudicial than its predecessor. The only true remedy is to direct the attention of the public anew to these subjects-to bring the spiritual nature of man, and his distinction from the beasts that perish, more frequently and pointedly before them; and thus, by raising their taste and capacity of judging, to prevent them being deceived by mere pretenders to science. In this paper, we intend to point out some of those relations in which man stands to the world around him, whether inanimate or animate, and thus to show that he is not a chance production on the face of the earth, or a mere higher development of an oyster or an ape, but that he is wisely and intelligently formed, in reference to the physical structure of the universe.

Most animals, in their natural state, are limited to a small portion of the earth; and when transferred by accident to other regions, soon perish. Even where the climate is not widely different, as in Europe and North America, the native species of animals common to both are few and unimportant. This is more decidedly the

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case, when countries far removed from each other in situation and physical circumstances are compared. But man is not thus limited to any one locality or climate. He subsists under the burning sun of the tropics, and amidst the snowy mountains of the polar zones; he has fixed his tent amidst the drifting sands of the Sahara, and built his hut below the ice-clad rocks of Greenland. Wherever a traveller has set his foot-wherever science or commerce have extended their researches, man is found to be already there, and to have already taken possession of the earth as his home and his inheritance. Nor does he appear in any part of it like a stranger or an alien. He may indeed thrive best in the more temperate regions, and in them acquire his highest moral and physical development; but in every part he not only continues to live, but even to increase, so far as the means of support will allow. He also becomes not only reconciled to, but even enamoured of the most diverse climates and countries, and views them as the most highly favoured on the globe. Hence, as the poet says:

'The shuddering tenant of the frigid zone,

Boldly proclaims the happiest spot his own;
Extols the treasures of his stormy seas,
And his long nights of revelry and ease.
The naked negro, panting at the line,
Boasts of his golden sands and palmy wine;
Basks in the glare, or stems the tepid wave,

And thanks his gods for all the good they gave.'

Even in the productions of various countries, we can perceive a certain adaptation to the wants and necessities of their inhabitants. Each region not only provides food for man, but also that food which is most beneficial for him in that locality. In the frigid zone, the cerealia, and other plants commonly used for human food, will not grow, and man is forced to subsist on the fish and aquatic birds and beasts of the surrounding seas. The strong oily nature of this food, and the vast quantities of it that the Esquimaux and other northern savages consume, have often excited the wonder of travellers. Yet modern chemistry has shown, that both the quantity and quality of this food are in accordance with the extreme severity of the climate, and furnish, as it were, the fuel by which the heat of the body is maintained and the fire of life supported. In the short warm summer, less animal food is needed or consumed; berries, and various antiscorbutic plants abound, and form the chief nourishment of the natives, and prevent or remove those diseases which an exclusively animal diet tends to produce.

In the temperate regions, a more happy mixture of various species of nourishment can be procured. The fields and forests yield a variety of grain and fruit; the flocks and herds give abundance of flesh and milk, whilst the sea, rivers, and lakes, contain a profusion of fish.

This variety of food corresponds to the mildness of the climate, and enables men to regulate their diet by the season of the year and their peculiar habits of life. Nearer the equator, again, vegetable nourishment begins to predominate; the warm climate, which favours a luxuriant growth of plants and fruit-trees, rendering animal food less useful, and, in large quantities, even hurtful to man. In such countries, domestic animals are not numerous, and are preserved only by great care and attention. Hence animal food is rarely tasted by large classes of the community, who subsist on what Europeans deem a poor and meagre diet. The abstemiousness of the Indian with his plate of rice, or the Arab with his handful of dates, is, however, equally the result of the climate, with the voraciousness of the Esquimaux over his feast of seal-flesh or whale-blubber. Nature has taught each the food he requires, and has brought that food to his door. But all the articles of human nourishment are not found in equal abundance in every country, and some important articles are confined to one. It is the same with the materials for clothing, and with various articles of luxury which use has now rendered almost necessaries of life to many. Wine can only be produced in a limited portion of the temperate zone, and not in the regions to the north or south of this. The olive succeeds best in a warmer clime; and the various species of pepper and other spices only beneath the tropics. Tea has mostly been brought from one country; and coffee and sugar are also limited in their growth. Cotton and tobacco are in like manner furnished to the whole world by a few countries. These examples may suffice for our purpose, though abundance of others might be produced. The result of this distribution of these necessaries of life, is, that men are rendered mutually dependent on each other; and commerce, the great civilizer of the world, becomes indispensable for the supply of even their material wants. Every interruption of this communication is felt over the whole globe; and no nation can injure another, without injuring itself at the same time. Even the vicissitudes of the seasons in one region of the earth, affect the comfort and welfare of nations dwelling in another hemisphere. A hurricane crushing the canes in the West Indies, would deprive Great Britain of half its sugar; and a failure of the cotton crop in Hindostan or the United States, might produce idleness and starvation in the streets of Manchester and Glasgow. Providence has thus clearly marked out mankind as one great family united by indissoluble ties, so that one member cannot suffer, but all must suffer at the same time. Mutual intercourse and peace are thus shown to be the natural condition of mankind, from which no nation can depart with impunity. Nor can we fail to observe its tendency to diffuse the highest civilization and the true religion over the whole globe, finally bringing all men under the universal law of Christianity.

use.

In many other respects, man is seen to have been wisely fashioned in reference to the physical nature of the earth, and its various productions of the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms. Many species of the former seem to have been formed almost expressly for his When associated with him, and labouring for his advantage, they appear in their natural and appropriate position. In a wild state, their higher qualities are less fully developed, and they seem even to degenerate when deprived of the protecting care of man. Some species, as the camel, for example, have never been found wild, and look as if they existed only for the use of mankind. The very structure of this animal, whereby it is enabled to traverse the parched and sandy deserts of Asia and Africa, is apparently more adapted for the use of man, than for its own advantage. The horse and ass, which supply its place in other regions of the earth, equally possess qualities bearing reference rather to the wants of men than their own. Their patience, docility, and attachment to their master, are not more remarkable than the kind of interest which they acquire for the various employments in which they are engaged. The eagerness of the war-horse neighing for the battle, and rush

ing fearlessly on the crowd of armed men, has been noticed even from the earliest times. Both these animals can bear considerable diversity of climate, and have spread with the human race into almost every region of the globe. This is no less true of the varieties of the ox and sheep, which not only accompany man in his various migrations, but adapt themselves in some measure to the physical nature of the countries into which they are introduced. Thus, in the north of Scotland and in Norway, the horses and cattle are small and hardy, but well fitted for the mountain roads and scanty pastures of these countries; whereas, in the fertile plains of England and the Netherlands, they greatly increase in size and strength, but require more food and care. Like the camel in the south, the reindeer is fitted to supply the wants of men in the far north; it thrives in regions where the horse and cow would speedily perish, and in some measure compensates for the absence of both, dragging the Laplander in his sledge over the frozen plains, feeding him with its milk and flesh, and clothing him with its skin. The dog is the last of the animals we shall notice, for its apparent special adaptation to the use of man. It is able to accompany him into every climate, and, like its master, can subsist on all varieties of food. It seems more subject to the influence of circumstances than any other species of animal, varying in the colour and quantity of hair, in the form of its head, body, and limbs, and in size, so that one may weigh more than one hundred times another. Its habits are no less pliable, and readily moulded to the wishes and convenience of man. As Cuvier has remarked, the dog is that animal of which our conquest has been most complete; and he is now so perfectly devoted to us, that he seems to have sacrificed to us his individual character, interest, and feelings. But it is not in what the dog thus loses or acquires, that his relation to the human species is most apparent. His original character and instincts manifest the same peculiarity. He is more strongly attached to man than to his own species, and not only prefers his society, but assists in defending him if attacked by other individuals. His intelligence, instincts, and powers, seem calculated to supply apparent wants in man, consequent on his higher and more intellectual nature. Thus much bodily exertion is spared to the shepherd; and the fine sense of smell in his companion compensates for its deficiency in the hunter, and, at the same time, leaves his mind free to attend to other objects.

Many similar adaptations of the animal kingdom to the uses of man might be produced; but these are sufficient for our purpose. Neither are these wanting among plants, where it will be found that the most useful species are frequently the easiest preserved and most widely distributed over the globe. Thus the potato has spread from its native seat in Central America to the Arctic circle in Europe, and the most remote islands of the southern hemisphere. The cerealia are no less widely dispersed, though in a variety of species, each adapted to a certain region of the earth. Thus oats and barley grow even within the polar circle; rye extends from the north of Europe to the mountain districts of India and Persia; and wheat is scarcely more limited in its range; whilst rice, delighting in a warm climate and moist soil, is the true grain of the torrid zone. In the mineral kingdom, the vast abundance and general diffusion over the whole earth, of iron, truly the most noble of the metals, is a similar instance. Many other metals and minerals appear also intended especially for human use, though in them, in consequence of their inorganic nature, marks of design are less remarkable and striking than in the two other kingdoms of nature.

These facts fully confirm the statement in the beginning of this paper, that man is not a mere chance production of nature, but a being whose existence on the earth has been foreseen and provided for. Geology tells us, that he is probably the last created of animated beings; yet we find many of the creatures which preceded him on the earth, fashioned, may we not say, with express

gives vent to his grief in the most pathetic lamentations for this, the earliest and best of all his friends. That he was not the only one Camoens had left on his departure from Lisbon, may be inferred from various letters addressed from India, which are generally appended to his works. In one of them sent to a friend in Portugal, now unknown, he expresses himself in the following manner :'I wished so much for your letter, that I feared my desire to have prevented its arrival; for this is the certain custom of fortune, to permit a strong wish for that which she is most ready to deny.'

In following out our plan of making the poet his own biographer, whenever this is practicable, we shall quote another part of this epistle, explanatory of his feelings on the occasion: it will also be interesting, as affording an idea of his peculiar style :-- On departing, as one bound to the other world, I sent, as falsifiers of the coin, with a public proclamation, to be hanged, the many hopes on which I had until then been fed. I freed myself from the thoughts which had accompanied me, because they were totally unprofitable; and thus, seeing myself in a situation as one placed between hawk and buzzard, the last words which I spoke were those of Scipio Africanus, Ingrata Patria, non possidebis ossa mea.' He then dwells at some length upon his then unhappy state, and speaking of the country, emphatically describes it as the mother of great villains, and the stepmother of honest men.' In conclusion, he mentions the sonnet which he had composed on the death of Noronha, as well as an eclogue on the same subject, which he considers better than some others which he had written, and which has since been much admired.

Soon after this time, and on the accession of Dom Pedro Mascaranhas to the Viceroy ship of India, it was necessary to equip an armament for the purpose of checking the great depredations committed by the Moorish vessels on the trade of the Straits of Mecca. The commander of this expedition, Manoel de Vasconcellos, received orders to sail to the coast of Arabia, and proceed to Mount Felix, near which he was to await the arrival of the pirates, and engage them. The armament set out from Goa, and after an ineffectual cruise, wintered at Ormus. Camoens offered himself as a volunteer, and accompanied Vasconcellos in this expedition, in which he suffered great privations. Finding no employment for his sword, he took up the pen, and in one of his poems is preserved a graphic account of the cruise, and a description of Mount Felix-that rugged, dry, and barren mountain, where neither a bird flies, nor a beast sleeps; where neither the clear river flows, the fountain boils, nor the cheerful rustling of the green branch is heard.' Of this time, so unprofitably spent, our poet complains in the following bitter strain:- Here my hapless fortune placed me; here, in this remote, rugged, and barren part of the world, did fortune will that a part of my short life should be spent, in order that it might be distributed in pieces throughout the world. Here the solitary and melancholy days were spent ; nor had I, as my only adversaries, life, a burning sun, cold waters, thick and sultry atmosphere, but also my own thoughts. These I saw against me, bringing to my memory some short and passed joy which I experienced in the world when I lived in it; to double the severity of my misfortunes, by showing me that there may be hours of happiness in the world.'

But another and a greater calamity awaited our hero on his return to Goa. On his arrival there, after the ineffectual cruise off Mount Felix, Camoens found the Viceroy Dom Pedro Mascaranhas replaced by Francisco Barreto, who had arrived from Portugal to assume the reins of the government of India. Under this selfish man the affairs of India, which had been for some time previously on the decline, were every day assuming a more alarming aspect, through the corruption of customs which a government devoted to rapacity and oppression is always sure to induce. The chivalrous spirit with which Vasco da Gama, Albuquerque, and other illustrious heroes, had sailed to India; the thirst for enterprise, the boast of dangers surmounted and victories achieved, the hopes of

distinction, which originally tempted the Portuguese youth from Lisbon, had totally vanished; and in place of these, the most sordid avarice and self-interest were rapidly spreading from the highest in office to those in inferior stations. To Camoens, who had witnessed the decrease of his country's glory at home, this state of things abroad must have been peculiarly distressing; and it was with a view to the regeneration of such principles and feelings, as alone could save the country from immediate ruin, that he wrote a poem, on his return to Goa, wherein he reprobated the proceedings of those in command, and the bad example they were setting to their countrymen. This production, which is entitled ' Desparates na India' (Follies in India), is written in a vein of satire which it would be very difficult to translate, and is peculiarly characterized by conveying in a proverb, at the end of every stanza, the pith of what has gone before.

Although this satire was written in general terms, it was nevertheless too conspicuously true in its application to the characters of some persons of importance not to excite their hatred and aversion against the person of the poet. They therefore applied to Barreto, who, unwilling to give offence to those whose conduct was but a reflection of his own, and with whose interests he was intimately connected, listened to their complaints, and banished the poet to China.

That Camoens considered his banishment as an usurpation of power and an act of tyranny, may be inferred from several passages of his works; yet his generosity and greatness of mind were such, that he never mentioned the name of the individual who had treated him with such severity and injustice. It was not till about two years after this period, and after great privations and misery, that Camoens obtained, as an alleviation of his unjust sentence, a small government appointment in Macao, which enabled him to procure the common necessaries of life. Here did our poet spend a few years, dedicating his leisure hours to the completion of his epic poem, the greatest part of which is believed to have been written in this remote part of the world. A grotto is still pointed out to the traveller, where tradition reports Camoens used to retire during the hours he dedicated to the muses. In this secluded spot Camoens passed his hours of meditation and poetical composition, and erected to his country a more lasting monument than those glorious and daring feats, the participation in which, through the persecution of his enemies, could never purchase for him that standing and independence to which, as a soldier alone, he was fully entitled. Well may we exclaim with his biographer, Dom Jose de Souza, What a strength of mind and firmness of character he must have possessed, not to have been disheartened by constant adversity, repeated persecutions, and a burning climate; but to find within himself sufficient energy to undertake a composition of such power and magnitude!'

During the government of Dom Constantino, who succeeded Barreto in the viceroyship of India, Camoens obtained permission to return to Goa, and having arranged his affairs at Macao, he set out with the little fortune which he had been able to save from the salary attached to his office. The ship in which he sailed was wrecked on the coast of Cambodia, near the mouth of the river Mecon. Here he was with difficulty able to save himself, having lost everything but the manuscript of his poem, which he held above the waters with one hand, whilst with the other he grasped a fragment of the shattered ship. The conduct of Camoens on this occasion, and the noble feelings which prompted him to attempt the salvation of his immortal work, in preference to any part of his treasure, are certainly characteristic of the exalted mind and noble heart of the hero. In canto 7 of the Lusiad, which seems to have been written after this disaster, he alludes to his hapless condition, while invoking the aid of his native nymphs to enable him to complete the task which he had undertaken.

Having brought the life of Camoens down to this interesting period, we will give the remainder in our next.