Spica were not associated with equinoxes or solstices, but nevertheless, as in the other cases, they admitted the light of those stars on days when they rose or set with the sun. Capella had five temples, built between 5350 and 1750, and Spica two temples, built about 3200 and 1900 B. C. respectively. Antares (a Scorpii) rose heliacally at the autumnal equinox, and Aldebaran and the Pleiades at the vernal equinox, when some of the equinoctial temples were built, and were doubtless observed and venerated in them. Besides the stars thus far named, Arcturus, a Leonis, a Phenicis, ẞ Muscae, a Trianguli, a Pavonis, Altair, and ẞ Argus are suggested as having probably received attention as the patronal stars of temples, on account of the positions which they occupied in relation to the solstitial or equinoctial sun during some part of the temple-building period; and Vega is supposed to have preceded Dubhe as the representative of the northern stars.

Temples could only be oriented towards the stars which rise and set; but the circumpolar stars which never disappeared were distinguished sharply from the rest, and received special attention at a very early date, being regarded as the special representatives of the powers of darkness, and consecrated to Set (= Anubis, Typhon, Tebha), who was at first among the greatest of the gods. At Thebes, where the area of the stars always visible was only about one-fourth of what it is with us, the chief circumpolar stars were those included in the constellations of the Thigh (Great Bear), the Hippopotamus (Draco), and the Jackal (the Little Bear); and these were called respectively the Thigh of Set, the Wife of Set (Taur-t), and the Jackal of Set. As the hippopotamus was not indigenous to Upper Egypt it came in the later astromythology to be replaced in great measure by the crocodile. Set or Anubis was sometimes identified with the constellation of Ursa Minor, and was accordingly represented with a jackal's head. More frequently, however, Set is a generic name for all the northern constellations and for the darkness over which they reign.

The Egyptians were great generalisers, and many of the names which are particularly applied to the sun in some specified part of its daily round are so extended as to refer to stars in an analogous position. Thus, the word Horus really signifies the sun or any heavenly body rising. The planet Mars becomes Hor-xuti, the Laughing or Red Horus; Orion rising becomes Sah-Horus, and the most northerly of the stars that rise become Set-Horus. The myth regarding the combat of Horus with Typhon to revenge the death of his father, Osiris, signifies that the rising sun destroys the circumpolar stars, who at twilight had conquered the sun of yesterday. This myth was at first depicted as Horus slaying the hippopotamus or the crocodile (Draco), but in later times when Draco ceased to be circumpolar the Hippopotamus was replaced by the Thigh of Set (Ursa Major), which in 2000 B. C. occupied exactly the same position as Draco had three thousand years before.

Osiris and Isis were, like Horus, generic names for a whole group of analogous celestial phenomena. Osiris stood for any celestial body becoming invisible; not only the setting sun, but the waning moon, or planets and fixed stars at their setting or when paling at dawn. The planet Venus often receives the appellation;

Orion paling before the sun is called Sah-Osiris, and the forms Khons-Osiris, PtahOsiris, and Min-Osiris appear to be the stars Canopus, Capella, and Spica at their setting. The mummy form habitually marks a setting star, and the horns and disk a rising one. The one is Osiris and the other Isis.

Isis stands for "anything luminous to the eastward heralding sunrise." Sometimes it is the dawn, sometimes the moon, sometimes y Draconis, sometimes Antares, sometimes a Centauri, sometimes a Columbae, and sometimes Sirius As y Draconis it is synonymous with Hathor (hawk, hippopotamus), Mut (vulture), Sechet or Bast (lion or cat), Menkh, Tafnet, Apet, and Nebun. As Antares it is Serk-t; as a Columbae Techi and Amen-t; as Sirius Hathor (cow) and Râ-t. Anuqua, Hak-t, and Maloul are also forms of Isis, but their astronomical relation has not yet been determined.

Isis in one or another of her forms (Hathor, Remen-t, Serk-t, Râ-t, Amen-t) is often represented as nursing Horus; "the original symbolism is that Isis or Hathor "is the star rising in the dawn, watching over the sun or taking him from his cra"dle; and the young Horus, the Rising Sun, is, of course, the son of Isis."

Professor Lockyer supports the foregoing identifications by evidence from the inscriptions and other subsidiary sources, but more particularly upon the comparative study of the orientation of the temples in successive periods.

This brings us to the interesting and important conclusions regarding the general religious history of Egypt towards which the data collected by Professor Lockyer point. The monuments seem to represent four schools of religious thought and astronomical interest, devoted respectively to the solstitial sun, the equinoctial sun, the northern stars, and the southern stars. The Northern School is related to the solstitial, and the Southern to the equinoctial; and the evidence, taken altogether, indicates that these two main divisions represent two races which maintained a struggle for the supremacy for more than three thousand years. The outline of the history is reconstructed by Professor Lockyer's hypothesis as follows.

"6400 B. C. A swarm of worshippers of the moon and the equinoctial sun come down the Nile and possess themselves of the country, which they find occupied by a population worshipping Râ and Atmu. The invaders build temples at Amada, Senneh, Philae, Edfu and elsewhere to Osiris their moongod, directed towards the autumnal equinox, which marks the beginning of their lunar year. They inaugurate what the Egyptian annals call the divine dynasty of Osiris.

5400 B. C.

Invaders from the north-east bring the worship of Anu and the northern stars. One swarm comes by the Red Sea, and founds temples at Redisieh and Denderah; another may have come over the isthmus and founded Annu. Either they came from northern Babylonia or else other swarms of the same race invaded that country at the same time. The divine dynasty of Set begins.

5000 B. C.

Horus and his Blacksmiths (Hor Sheshu) come down the

river to revenge his father Osiris by killing the murderer Set. In other words, they have come to assist the former southern invaders who worship Osiris against their conquerors from the north-east who have replaced him by Set. The southern people have now become sun-worshippers, and Osiris means the sun as well as the moon.

The people from the north-east are beaten, and there is an amalgamation of the original and Southern cults. Set is retained, however, and Anubis presides over sepulchres. The priestly headquarters are now at Annu and Abydos. At Annu both the sun and northern stars are worshipped, but at Abydos Osiris, now a sun-god, reigns supreme.

4000 B. C. Another swarm from the north-east, this time certainly from Babylonia and apparently by the isthmus only, since no east and west temples are found on Red Sea routes. They not only worship Anu, but also the spring equinox sun-god.

3700 B. C.
The Southern
ple-building on a large scale.

people at Barkal and Thebes in force; temChnemu begins to give place to Amen-Râ.

Still more blending between original and Southern peoples.

3500 B. C. Final blending of North and South cults at Thebes. Temples founded there to Set and Min on the lines of Annu and An. 3200 B. C.

The worship of Amen-Râ established at Thebes. Supremacy of the 'Confraternity of Amen.' This marks the final religious unification of the country."

A tentative list of the original members of the rival pantheons is attempted, which we also reproduce.

The temples, pyramids, and great Sphinx of Gizeh belong to the Southern or Equinoctial School, and the Colossi of Memnon to the Solstitial School.

The inscriptions state again and again that the gods associated with southern stars came from a locality called the Land of Pun-t, which was always considered a holy land. Brugsch supposed it to have occupied the south and west of Arabia Felix, but Maspero and Mariette identified it with a part of Somâli Land bordering on the Gulf of Aden. The inscriptions, especially those at Dêr el Bahair, have made it certain that Pun-t was in Africa. The pictures of Hottentot women, piledwellings, and elephants, and references to other products of the country, all point to a southern part of the African continent. This indicates the truthfulness of the ancient tradition recorded by Maspero that the shores of Pun-t were bathed by the waters of an unknown sea (Lake Victoria Nyanza) which could be reached by going up the Nile.

Professor Lockyer strengthens his conclusions by craniological evidence, Virchow testifying that the skulls from the ancient empire are brachycephalic and those from the new dolichocephalic or mesacephalic.

Although Egypt is the principal subject of the book, an interesting series of parallel facts regarding other countries is given. Those referring to Babylonia and Syria are of special importance on account of their bearing on the question of the origin of the Equinoctial School of Egyptian astro-mythology. Also the influence of the Egyptian temple-architecture upon the Greek is traced, and numerous instances of orientation in other countries cited.

Whatever may be thought of the specific conclusions in matters of detail at which Professor Lockyer arrives, it is undeniable that he has opened up a new and exceedingly interesting and important field of research. The history of religions cannot fail to be an immense gainer from this application of exact science to the solution of some of its most fundamental problems.

There is of course danger that the star-theory, like every other explanation of religious origins that has ever been attempted, may be overdone, and structures really built at random, or in relation to terrestrial conditions of some kind, may be too hastily connected with some celestial body or phenomenon. It is conceivable that an apparent orientation might be a mere fortuitous coincidence; though as far as Egypt is concerned there is such a multitude of such instances, and such a converging of all possible lines of evidence towards the same result, as to carry the matter entirely out of the realm of plausible speculation into that of ascertained fact.

But, as Professor Lockyer constantly reiterates, he has merely broken a path into a wonderland whose countless treasures still remain to be gathered by the assiduous investigator. The question of tribal totems and their exact relation to the members of the Pantheon and the heavenly bodies which they represent is an exceedingly interesting one, which calls for much accumulative labor and much care

ful and painstaking comparison with corresponding features in the religious life of other peoples of every degree of culture all over the globe.

It is scarcely necessary, considering from what press it comes, to add that the typographical get-up of Mr. Lockyer's book is exceedingly good. The paper is excellent, the print is large and clear, and the illustrations well chosen and finely reproduced. In a few instances a plate is laterally reversed, or a pair of reference letters interchanged, but the errors are quite unimportant ones and readily detected. As the work is one of the most important of the year, and on a subject which is surrounded with obscurities and technicalities, the literary public may well congratulate itself on having it in so attractive and readable a form, and both author and publisher deserve much credit for the result. Συλ.

FROM THE GREEKS TO DARWIN. An Outline of the Development of the Evolution Idea. By Henry Fairfield Osborn, Sc. D. New York and London: Macmillan & Co. 1894. Pp. 259. Price, $2.00.

The present volume forms the opening number of the Columbia University Biological Series edited by Henry Fairfield Osborn, Professor of Biology in Columbia College, and formerly Professor in Princeton. The work is dedicated to Dr. McCosh, and is one of the many good results of the impetus that that lamented teacher gave to the study of philosophy in America. The volume grew out of lectures first delivered in Princeton in 1890 upon the period between Buffon and Darwin, and completed in a fuller course at Columbia in 1893. The chief object of the author is to bring forward the many strong and true features of pre-Darwinian evolution, usually passed over or misunderstood, to place before the reader the evidence of continuity in the development of the evolution idea, and to trace the lines of this development through the history of philosophy. An excellent idea in the plan of the lectures is that of the "environment" of the evolution idea. Professor Osborn sees, and clearly states, that ideas are a product of nature; that they grow and develop like living organisms and that the general features of evolution may be traced in them also. "The final conception of Evolution is to be regarded as a cluster of many subsidiary ideas, "which slowly evolved in the environment of advancing human knowledge. Like an "animal or plant made up of different parts which have been added one by one along "the ages, we can take up this history as we should a bit of biological research; con"sider the idea as living and still growing, and seek the first stages of each of its "parts." The title of the work is a happy one, and seems to have been suggested by Zeller's The Greek Predecessors of Darwin. The excellent bibliography appended to the lectures shows that Professor Osborn has employed the best obtainable sources in the philosophy of the subject, and although he lays little claim to originality in the conception and execution of the work, his reputation as a practical biologist leads the reader to expect that his material will be placed under new and instructive points of view.

Throughout the whole history of philosophy and science, the speculations upon