Rights of Accused. The accused has a right to have witnesses in his behalf, and to have the aid of counsel, who may cross-examine the witnesses for the prosecution.

The Result.—If it appears upon examination that the accused is innocent of the crime, he is discharged. If his guilt seems probable, he is held to await the action of the grand jury. In the case of some offenses bail may be accepted. But if no suitable bail is offered, or if the offense is not bailable, the accused is committed to jail. Material witnesses for the prosecution may be required to give bonds for their appearance at the trial, or in default thereof may be committed to jail.

Reports. The justice makes a report of the proceedings in the examination, and files it with the clerk of the court before which the accused is bound to appear for trial.

PROCEEDINGS FOR PREVENTING CRIME.

Prefatory. But it is better to prevent crime than to punish it. Indeed, one reason for punishing wrongdoers is that the fear of punishment may deter people from committing crime.

Proceedings. As a conservator of the public peace, then, a justice may require persons to give bonds for good behavior. The preliminary proceedings are similar to those in the case of a trial-the complaint, warrant and return. But the complainant simply alleges upon oath, that a crime against his person or property has been threatened. The examination is conducted as in case of a criminal offense.

Result.-If upon examination there appears reason to fear that the crime will be committed by the party complained of, he shall be required to enter into recog

nizance to keep the peace, failing in which he shall be committed to jail for the time to be covered by the surety, said time not to exceed six months.

REMARKS ON CRIMINAL TRIALS.

The care for the rights of the accused is based upon the principle in our law, that every man shall be held innocent till proved guilty. Another principle is that a person accused of crime cannot be tried in his absence. The purpose of arresting him is to secure his presence at the trial. If he can guarantee this by bail he is set at liberty, otherwise he is confined in jail. See p. 231.

Pertinent Questions.

Are the justices and constables town, county or state officers? How is it known at the county seat who the justices and constables in each town are? Define docket, summons, warrant, pleading, subpoena, crime, felony, misdemeanor, venire, costs, execution, recognizance. Why are there two justices in each town? What is meant by "change of venue?" How is an oath administered in court? What persons may not serve as witnesses? If a criminal should make confession of the crime to his lawyer, could the lawyer be subpoenaed as a witness on the trial? Name some things "exempt from execution" in this state. What is to hinder a bitter enemy of yours, if you have one, from having you committed to prison. Can a civil suit proceed in the absence of the defendant?

Practical Work.

Assume that John Smith bought from Reuben White a cow, the price agreed upon being $30; that Smith refuses to pay, and White sues him. Write up all the papers in the case, make proper entries in the docket, assessing costs, etc.

CHAPTER IV.

THE INCORPORATED VILLAGE.

Need of.-Owing to conditions, natural and artificial, favorable to business enterprises, people group together in certain places. Living in a limited area, the amount of land occupied by each family is small, and the territory is surveyed into lots and blocks. To make each homestead accessible, streets are laid out. The distances traveled being short, people go about principally on foot; hence the need of sidewalks. To reduce the danger of going about after dark, streetlamps are needed. The nearness of the houses to each other renders it necessary to take special precautions for the prevention of fires, and for their extinguishment in case they break out.

But to provide and maintain all these things takes money, and the people living in the other parts of the town not sharing the benefits would hardly like to help pay for them. Hence it is but just that the people living in the thickly settled portion of the town should be permitted to separate from the rest and form an organization by themselves.

For

Again, the circumstances being different, the regulations must be different in this part of the town. instance, in the country a man may drive as fast as he pleases, while here fast driving endangers life and must be prohibited. In the country sleigh-bells are not needed, while here they must be used to warn people of the approach of teams. In the country, if a man's house takes fire no other person's property is endangered; but here the danger is such that all the people are interested in each man's house, and the com

munity may require that chimneys be properly constructed and ashes safely disposed of.

How Incorporated. –Villages are, with rare exceptions, incorporated under a general law specifying the number of inhabitants, the mode of voting on incorporation, etc.

The method in Minnesota, which may be taken as typical, is as follows: Upon petition of thirty or more voters resident upon the lands to be incorporated, which lands have been divided into lots and blocks, the county commissioners appoint a time, and give due notice thereof, when the voters "actually residing within the territory described," may vote upon the question. If a majority of those voting favor incorporation, the commissioners file with the register of deeds the original petition, a true copy of the notice of election, and the certificate showing the result of the vote. The village is thus incorporated, and has the usual corporate powers. It organizes by electing officers.

Elective Officers.-The elective officers of a village are a president, three trustees, a treasurer, and a recorder, who are chosen for one year, and two justices of the peace and a constable, elected for two years.*

The Council and Its Powers.-The president, the three trustees, and the recorder constitute the village council. They may make for the following purposes among others, such ordinances or by-laws as they deem necessary.

1. To establish and regulate a fire department; to purchase apparatus for extinguishing fires; to construct water-works; to designate limits within which wooden

*The difference in term is accounted for by the fact that the justices and constables are in a measure county officers.

buildings shall not be erected; to regulate the manner of building and cleaning chimneys, and of disposing of ashes; and generally to enact such necessary measures for the prevention or extinguishment of tires as may be proper.

2. To lay out streets, alleys, parks, and other public grounds; to grade, improve, or discontinue them; to make, repair, improve, or discontinue sidewalks, and to prevent their being encumbered with merchandise, snow or other obstructions; to regulate driving on the streets; to appoint a street commissioner.

3. To erect lamp-posts and lamps, and provide for the care and lighting of the lamps.

4. To appoint a board of health, with due powers; to provide public hospitals; to regulate slaughterhouses; to define, prevent, and abate nuisances.

5. To establish and maintain a public library and reading-room.

6. To prohibit gambling; to prevent, or license and regulate the sale of liquor, the keeping of billiardtables, and the exhibition of circuses and shows of all kinds; to appoint policemen, and provide a place of confinement for offenders against the ordinances.

7. In general, "to ordain and establish all such ordinances and by-laws for the government and good order of the village, the suppression of vice and immorality, the prevention of crime, the protection of public and private property, the benefit of trade and commerce, and the promotion of health, not inconsistent with the constitution and laws of the United States or of this state, as they shall deem expedient," and to provide penalties for the violation of the ordinances.

All fines and penalties imposed belong to the village.