intelligence, eloquence belongs to the orator."

But Quintilian adds, "Therefore Cicero worked out with especial pains the precepts for the latter." (Et Marcus Tullius inventionem quidem ac dispositionem prudentis hominis putat, eloquentiam oratoris. Ideoque praecipue circa praecepta partis hujus laboravit.)

See De Quincey's distinction, in the essay on Pope, between literature of knowledge and literature of power; and Gardiner's between literature of thought and literature of feeling, The Forms of Prose Literature, page II. Albalat (la Formation du Style par l'Assimilation des Auteurs, page 88) cites from G. Renard (la Méthode Scientifique de l'Histoire Littéraire, page 385) a distinction of H. Balzac's between les écrivains d'idées and les écrivains d'images.

That Aristotle does not mean to confine his theory in the Poetics to verse is plain from Chapters i ("For we should otherwise have no general name," etc. Οὐδὲν yàp av éxoiμev . . .), vi (“diction . . . the power and effect of which is the same whether in verse or prose." Τέταρτον . . . ʼn λéğıs —), ix ("For it is not by writing in verse or prose that the historian and the poet are distinguished.” Ὁ γὰρ ἱστορικὸς —).

...

15. Macaulay often opens a paragraph with a sentence that forecasts, not only that paragraph, but also several following. This habit of indicating larger groups is not peculiar, indeed, to him; but is more easily observed than in most other authors. It is like the process called by sailors warping, which is to cast an anchor ahead, pull the ship up to it, cast ahead again, and so on. In like manner the end of any paragraph may sum up both that paragraph and several preceding.

16. Scott and Denney, Paragraph Writing, pages 2436; Composition Rhetoric (much fuller statement and

exemplification), Chapter iii; E. H. Lewis, A First Book in Writing English, Chapter vii.

An example is an instance of the principle expounded, as in § 21 the instance of paragraph emphasis, or in Selection IV, paragraph VIII, the instance of the embargo; an illustration is a parallel from outside, as the instructive fact that the principle of emphasis has its parallel in architecture. Both are needed in inverse proportion to the knowledge of the audience; but to some extent both are always needed and, whether needed or not, give scope for liveliness and originality. In Selection I, the development of the paragraphs is mainly by example. Of development by illustration. almost any of Bacon's essays offers admirable instances. Naturally, few paragraphs in any author are developed by any one means exclusively; and some paragraphs might be found to exhibit them all. Macaulay uses a single, or a very simple, development oftener, perhaps, than any other famous author. Being thus more. obvious, his method is very profitable for study at the beginning. The following paragraph, for example, merely iterates and exemplifies a contrast and then closes with a striking illustration:

So judged those who were ignorant of the character and habits of the Spanish people. There is no country in Europe which it is so easy to overrun as Spain; there is no country in Europe which it is more difficult to conquer. Nothing can be more contemptible than the regular military resistance which Spain offers to an invader; nothing more formidable than the energy which she puts forth when her regular military resistance has been beaten down. Her armies have long borne too much resemblance to mobs; but her mobs have had, in an unusual degree, the spirit of armies. The soldier, as compared

with other soldiers, is deficient in military qualities; but the peasant has as much of those qualities as the soldier. In no country have such strong fortresses been taken by surprise; in no country have unfortified towns made so furious and obstinate a resistance to great armies. War in Spain has, from the days of the Romans, had a character of its own: it is a fire which cannot be raked out; it burns fiercely under the embers; and long after it has, to all seeming, been extinguished, bursts forth more violently than ever. This was seen in the last war. Spain had no army which could have looked in the face an equal number of French or Prussian soldiers; but one day laid the Prussian monarchy in the dust; one day put the crown of France at the disposal of invaders. No Jena, no Waterloo, would have enabled Joseph to reign quiet at Madrid. MACAULAY: Lord Mahon's War of the Succession in Spain.

So in Macaulay's Machiavelli, one of his most pointed and interesting essays, paragraph XXXII is wholly illustration; XXXIV, wholly example; VI, developed by contrast; XI, developed by iteration, example, and illustration.

17-20. In Selection IV, paragraph V makes explicit reference largely by iteration of commerce, leading up logically to commerce including navigation. Paragraphs VI, VII (except in one sentence), and IX have explicit reference throughout; paragraph VIII has hardly any. Careful and extended examination of paragraph coherence in this and the other selections, especially Selection III, will be found repaying.

Macaulay's habitual asyndeton is as characteristic as Burke's habitual explicit reference. Page after page of Macaulay's Machiavelli, for instance, has no conjunction between sentences except but, and hardly any other connective.

21. Selection IV is remarkable for the clearness of paragraph emphasis. The ends of paragraphs III, XVII, and XXIX, for instance, are both conclusive and summary, and XXI closes with the key-word of the whole.

22. Professor Wendell gives a formula for paragraph emphasis: "A paragraph whose unity can be demonstrated by summarizing its substance in a sentence whose subject shall be a summary of its opening sentence, and whose predicate shall be a summary of its closing sentence, is theoretically well massed.” — English Composition, page 129.

26. Aristotle, Rhetoric, III, xii (page 272 of Welldon's translation), shows that asyndeton is a means of amplification. Conversely, observe that the paragraph from Emerson in § 25 is not, as some people would affirm, concise. Each sentence is easily read; but after four or five sentences the accumulation of statements with no bearing expressed is extremely fatiguing. Try the effect of combining these detached statements into sentences that shall express the relations of the thoughts as you understand the relations. A dozen people trying the experiment without reference to one another and then comparing their results will be surprised at the divergence.

For the effect of short, detached sentences on the movement, or flow, of the paragraph, see the summary of Aristotle under § 37 of his appendix. The significant sentence is, τὸ μὲν γὰρ μικρὸν προσπταίειν πολλάκις ποιεῖ τὸν ἀκροατήν, “For the short makes the hearers often stumble." (Compare § 27.)

As to redundancy not much more can be laid down

The habit is to be broken only by painstaking correction of particular case after particular case; but in general the only principle (beyond the obvious cutting out of merely superfluous words) is to reduce a redundant sentence to a clause, a clause to a phrase, a phrase to a single precise word.

Superfluous words intrude most readily in careless conventional expressions:

(There is) another thing (which) is quite significant in this report.

The game was (a) brilliant (one).

The island is (in a) poverty-stricken (condition).

This transaction is (of a) very reprehensible (character). The other species is (of a) deep red (colour).

We (would) suggest that a canvass be made.

(It is) very often (true that) the Indians make some show of reform.

A more subtle, and consequently a more dangerous, sort of redundancy is the avoidance by change of term of a repetition which ought to be avoided by recasting, as of clause in phrase, etc.; e.g.:

Although London is still ahead of New York in population, yet if the entire metropolitan district around the mouth of the Hudson were counted as one city, as (it is) in the case of the big town on the Thames, the British city would not contain more inhabitants than the American town. In many respects the American city is getting ahead of its rival on the other side of the ocean. New York's imports and exports are greater than London's. The aggregate of its bank clearances is much larger than those of England's city. Its growth in these respects too is much in excess of that of its rival.