sandstones of undetermined age. These veins vary in thickness from a few inches to 6 feet, the ore being irregularly distributed through the quartz in strings or veinlets, sometimes attaining a thickness of from 12 to 15 inches. A large portion of that hitherto raised has been obtained within a short distance of the surface by means of trenches dug on the course of the lodes, but several shafts have also been sunk to a depth of over 100 feet. The value of the metal on the ground is 12 to 14 cents per pound. It is partly exported in cakes or ingots to the United States, and partly employed on the ground in the manufacture of Babbit metal (containing 15 to 20 per cent of antimony with lead and tin, or in the better qualities with lead, copper, and tin), valued at from 20 to 50 cents per pound.

Nova Scotia. In the variety and value of its mineral resources this province stands pre-eminent, and it is the only one in which carefully compiled mineral statistics are annually published by the Government.

From the Report of the Mining Department for 1880 we learn that the total value of the mineral productions of that year, which included gold, manganese, coal, gypsum, and building stone, amounted to about 3 millions of dollars.

Besides the foregoing, copper, petroleum, and salt are likely soon to be added to the minerals produced in this province.

As regards petroleum, the Inspector of Mines states: "During 1879 and 1880 large tracts of land in Victoria and Inverness counties, Cape Breton Island, were carefully examined, and the following indications of the presence of petroleum observed:-Globules of heavy dark petroleum were seen rising through the water of Lake Ainslie, and spreading over the surface, so that the rocks on the shores were in many places saturated with it, and

this saturation was observed for several miles. Swamps were frequently found to be covered with oil, and many springs were so impregnated with it as to be unfit for domestic use. Gas was also observed issuing from fissures in the rocks in many places.

"Seven wells have been sunk in the Lake Ainslie district. That of the Cape Breton Oil and Mining Company has reached a depth of 1100 feet. Considerable quantities of oil have been secured. At present the quantity of salt water in the strata has caused a delay, and necessitated fresh pumping appliances."

It would be instructive could we compare the quantities produced during the three years from 1879 to 1881, but there are no statistics available, except for Nova Scotia. In this case we find from the figures above given that the yield for 1880 is very nearly double that of the average of the three years 1869 to 1870.

Assuming a similar development to have occurred in the other provinces, the total annual value of minerals raised in the Dominion would now be considerably over eight million dollars, of which the provinces of British Columbia and Nova Scotia yield more than two-thirds. This arises from their productive coal and gold mines. The former, however, are destined in the near future to be surpassed in productiveness by the vast coal-fields of the territories east of the Rocky Mountains, but in which as yet no mines have been established.

CHAPTER IX.

CANALS AND RAILWAYS-POSTAL SYSTEM, TELEGRAPHS, ETC.

THE canals of Canada are among its most important public works, and are evidence of the energy and determination of the people to provide facilities not only for their own internal communication, but also such as will eventually control the carrying trade of the whole southwest of the American continent.

Their cost is stated by Sir Alexander Galt at $37,500,000, and by P. Forten, who includes incidental works, at $60,000,000.

These canals are too numerous to admit of a detailed description. As engineering works, they are the pride of Canada; but they are remarkable for their capacity rather than for their length, and are invaluable as forming a communication with the great lakes. Vessels of considerable tonnage pass through these to the interior of the country. Ships of 4500 tons burden, for example, can enter the harbour of Montreal through a canal unsurpassed in magnitude by any other canal works, excepting those on the Clyde; and it is this system which renders navigation practicable from the strait of Belle Isle, by the river St. Lawrence, through Lakes Ontario, Erie, St. Clair, and Huron to Duluth at the head of Lake Superior, a distance of 2384 statute miles.

The total length of canal and river improvement

embraces about 250 miles upon the St. Lawrence, Ottawa, Rideau, and Richelieu rivers.

The canal systems of the Dominion, under Government control, are as follows:—

1. The river St. Lawrence and Lakes.

2. The river Ottawa.

3. The Rideau Navigation from Ottawa.
4. The Trent Navigation to Kingston.

5. The river Richelieu to Lake Champlain.

6. St. Peter Canal, Cape Breton, Nova Scotia.

Among canals projected is one to connect the Bay of Fundy with the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and another to connect the St. Lawrence with Lake Huron, as follows:

1. The Ottawa and Georgian Bay Canal, from Montreal, via the Ottawa and Lake Nipissing, to French River.

2. The Toronto and Georgian Bay Canal, by way of Lake Simcoe.

3. The Hur-Ontario Canal, from Hamilton to Lake Huron, near Port Franks.

The competitor with the St. Lawrence system of canals for the western trade is the Erie Canal, between the foot of Lake Erie and New York.

The works for the enlargement of the canal, commenced in 1871, comprise the construction of locks 200 feet long and 45 feet wide, with 9 feet of water on the sills; the main channel having a depth of 10 feet and a mean width at bottom of 40 feet, varying at the surface from 50 to 80 feet.

Canada has faith in her canal system, and expects that when she has reduced the cost of inland carriage to a minimum, European and American capital will avail itself of the shortest and cheapest route from the Atlantic to the interior of the North American continent. The distance from Chicago to Liverpool via Montreal is 300 miles

shorter than vid New York. The difference in time in favour of the lake and river route against the Erie Canal is seven to eight days. The Erie Canal is closed by frost several days earlier than the St. Lawrence canals, and the cost of transport by the latter is considerably less. For transatlantic trade the canals of Canada offer a communication with the great lakes, the inland portion of which is superior to that via New York; but the sea portion of the route is inferior in rates of freight and insurance.

By this system of canals, vessels of 4500 tons can enter the harbour of Montreal, and propellers of 1500 tons can pass thence to the head of Lake Superior.

The tolls on these canals are almost nominal, intended simply to defray the cost of maintenance, and the policy of the Government is, as far as possible, to make them free, and thus through the increased traffic to secure an indirect profit to the country.

1. Railways.

Canada owes her first railway, as well as her first steamboat, to Montreal.

In 1831, on the announcement of the success of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, a charter was sought from the Parliament of Canada, and was granted in the following year, for a short line of railway between Laprairie, on the south bank of the St. Lawrence, nearly opposite to Montreal, to St. John's, on the Richelieu River, at the outlet of Lake Champlain. Work was commenced in 1835. In the following year the line was used with horse-power, and in 1837 with locomotives. It may be here remarked that one of the engines first used on this road was the handiwork of the celebrated Robert Stephenson, and this engine is still in use on a branch of the line