NEW POLITICAL METHODS

489

This system, which was commonly called the "referendum," had been used in some foreign countries, and also for some state laws; for instance, in votes on "local option "the question of allowing the sale of liquor in a given city or district. Beginning with South Dakota in 1898, the states began to provide by their constitutions that an act passed by the legislature must be voted on at a popular election before it went into effect, if a sufficient number of voters demanded that it be so submitted. This was called "compulsory referendum." What could be done in case a legislature refused to take action which the people wished? To meet this case the "initiative" was suggested; that is, an informal group of citizens, usually five or ten per cent of the voters, might join in proposing what they thought a proper law or constitutional amendment. At the next election the people would have an opportunity to vote for or against it, without its going through the legislature at all. In 1915 nineteen states had introduced the referendum and eighteen had added the initiative. A difficulty in using the initiative and referendum was that voters would not turn out in large numbers for a special election; and if the propositions were to be voted on at a regular election, thousands of men would vote for President, governor, and mayor, but would neglect to express an opinion upon the referendum on laws or constitutional amend

ments.

The initiative and the referendum were expected to secure for the people the laws that they wanted. Could the same principle be applied to an elective official who neglected his duty or defied the laws? One way was to refuse to reëlect such officials; their terms were short, and they would soon come to the end of their service. In some states a quicker method was found in the "recall "; by this plan such officials might be obliged at any time to submit to a special election, which decided whether somebody else should take their places. The recall was first applied to holders of small offices, then to mayors of cities in Washington and California. Up to 1916 the recall had never been used against governors or other high executive officers, although such use is possible

in several states. In a few states the system also applied to judges.

389. The Hague Conferences. During this period the United States took an important part in promoting peace and strengthening international law. The first Hague Conference, attended by representatives of twenty-six nations in 1899, set up a tribunal to which any two nations could refer a dispute for peaceful settlement. A second Conference in 1907 drew up conventions or treaties which were ratified by all the great powers and most of the smaller nations, encouraging arbitration and adopting definite rules to prevent or mitigate the worst horrors of warfare. Friends of peace the world over hoped that later Conferences would succeed in organizing a world league of nations that would end war altogether.

390. Summary. This chapter describes new problems in the public welfare and in political methods, and the novel methods of the initiative, referendum, and recall.

Between 1896 and 1912 the four remaining territories in the main part of the United States - Utah, Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Arizona - all became states. Alaska, the Hawaiian Islands, and Porto Rico became territories. In the West there was a movement for conservation: this meant the holding by the government of timber and coal lands, and sites for water powers and irrigation works.

Political methods were altered by the Australian ballot and short-ballot systems; the suffrage in many states was extended to women. Commission governments were set up for many cities. In politics the direct primary took the place of the convention in many states. This was one of several measures intended to cut down the power of political bosses.

Another method was to introduce the initiative, or popular vote on laws that had not gone to the legislature; and the referendum, or popular vote on measures that had passed the legislature. Several states provided for the recall of public officers.

In international politics the United States favored arbitration in place of war, and it took part in the Hague Conferences of 1899 and 1907.

REFERENCES AND QUESTIONS

REFERENCES

491

Maps. Hart, Monroe Doctrine, frontis.; Wall Maps, nos. 20, 22, 24. Histories. Am. Year Book, 1910-1916. Bassett, Un. States, 711

712.

Beard, Contemporary Hist., 283–296. - Bogart, Economic Hist., ch. xxxiii. Coman, Industrial Hist., ch. xi. - Moore, Industrial Hist., 54-60. - Paxson, New Nation, 242-251, 290-334.

Sources. Beard, Readings in Am. Government, §§ 37, 45, 52-54, 162– 228. Beard and Shultz, Documents on State-wide Initiative. - Hart, Contemporaries, IV. §§ 197, 198-200, 202. - James, Readings, § 104. Monthly and weekly periodicals; newspapers.

Side Lights and Stories. Dunne, Mr. Dooley (several volumes). Foote, Chosen Valley (Irrigation). — Gilman, In This Our World (Verse). Irwin, Random Rhymes, etc. - Luther, The Henchman. Roosevelt, Autobiography. — Wright, Winning of Barbara Worth (Reclamation). Pictures. Cartoons and other illustrations in: Collier's; Harper's Weekly; Independent; Review of Reviews;

World's Work, etc.

Literary Digest;

QUESTIONS

Outlook;

(§ 382) 1. How was Utah admitted to the Union? 2 (For an essay). A visit to Salt Lake City. 3. How was Oklahoma admitted? 4 (For an essay). A visit to Oklahoma. 5. How was New Mexico admitted? 6. How was Arizona admitted? 7 (For an essay). A visit to the Grand Canyon of the Colorado. 8. How were the new territories organized? 9 (For an essay). A visit to Honolulu.

(8 383) 10. To whom did minerals, water power, etc., belong? 11. What is "conservation"? 12. How was irrigation provided? 13. What were the reservations of scenery? 14 (For an essay). A visit to Glacier National Park. 15. How were coal, oil, and gas reserved? 16. How was water power reserved?

(§ 384) 17. Why were people dissatisfied with politics? 18. What was the "Australian ballot" reform? 19. What was the "short-ballot" reform?

(§ 385) 20. What were the conditions of suffrage? 21. How did woman suffrage come about? 22. What offices could women hold?

(§ 386) 23. How were cities governed? 24. What were the difficulties of city government? 25. What was "commission government"?

(§ 387) 26. What were the difficulties of nominations to office? 27. What was the "direct primary"? 28 (For an essay). An old-fashioned nominating convention. 29. What were the defects of the primary? 30. How were parties connected with the governments? 31. What were "bosses"?

(§ 388) 32. What was the "referendum"? 33. What was the "compulsory referendum"? 34. What was the "initiative"? 35. How did the initiative and referendum progress? 36. What was the "recall "?

(8 389) 37. What was accomplished by the Hague Conferences? 38. (For an essay). The Hague conventions.

CHAPTER XXXVII

POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT (1905-1917)

391. President Roosevelt (1905-1909). With the beginning of Roosevelt's second term in 1905 came a period of great changes in government and politics. No previous President had shown such an interest in individuals, talked so freely about his policies, traveled so widely, and made so many speeches. The President felt that he had a majority of the people behind him, and he took up the idea that the federal government must further regulate the trusts and monopolies and keep "big business" in order.

Steamer passing through the Gatun Locks, in the Panama Canal. The ship is towed by electric engines on the tracks at each side

He was also active in foreign affairs, whether in Europe, Asia, or America. In 1905, when a fierce war was going on between the Russians and the Japanese in Manchuria, which was a part of China, he arranged for a conference between envoys of the two hostile powers at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, and they made a peace acceptable to both parties.

ROOSEVELT AND TAFT

493

President Roosevelt was also much interested in South American and Central American affairs. In 1902 and 1906 delegates were sent to Pan-American Congresses at Mexico and Rio de Janeiro. Secretary Hay (§§ 355, 362) died in 1905, and his successor, Elihu Root, made a brilliant Secretary of State and was warmly received by the South Americans.

The President and his successor, President Taft, were especially interested in the work on the Panama Canal. The work was finally placed under the engineering management of Major Goethals of the United States Army, and he soon " made the dirt fly." The health of the employees was cared for by Colonel Gorgas, who showed great skill in saving the workmen from malaria and yellow fever, the two deadly foes of man in the tropics. In 1912 Congress began to construct the necessary forts to protect the canal. In 1914 the canal was opened for traffic, having cost the

United States about

$400,000,000. It was

William Howard Taft

one of the largest and best engineering works in the world and was designed to serve an immense commerce.

392. President Taft (1909-1913). As the election of 1908 approached, President Roosevelt declined to consider the suggestion made by some of his friends that he should stand for a third term; and he put forward as his candidate William H. Taft of Ohio, who was nominated without difficulty by the Republicans. Bryan, who by this time was convinced that free silver was not necessary, was for a third time the Demo

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