connection with Scotland, and the arrival of commissioners from that country, imposed the covenant upon the nation: a step which created a necessity for much greater changes, and turned their attention to the new-modelling of the whole of the church government. § 590. The works which this assembly gave to the public are the more interesting, because they have been retained as the authorized guide to those of our countrymen who still adopt the presbyterian form of church government. They consist of a Directory for worship and ordination; of a Confession of Faith; and two Catechisms, the larger and the shorter. Besides these, there is a form of presbyterian church government agreed upon by the assembly, but never authorized. their cures, and the bishops, who had alone power to ordain new ministers, were all opposed to the proceedings of the parliament. The House had at first committed to the assembly an authority for approving of such ministers as were nominated by the patrons to the several The most important question, and cures, but they soon found that a much one which was agitated with the great- more extensive supply was required; est warmth, was respecting the nature while their interest plainly pointed out of congregations generally, as forming the wisdom of introducing their own the essential difference between the friends into situations which were likely presbyterians and independents. In this to prove so influential on the opinions discussion Lightfoot and Selden joined of the public. When, therefore, there with the greatest earnestness, and appeared much difficulty in settling brought forward their great learning, to any thing definitely, an ordinance was show that the church at Jerusalem must made, which conveyed to the assembly, have consisted of more congregations pro tempore, the power of ordaining. than one, and that the appeal from the The same ordinance was subsequently church of Antioch would never have continued for three years, and then been made to that at Jerusalem, had made perpetual. they esteemed themselves an independent community. It is almost unnecessary to add, that the presbyterians carried their point; and, indeed, it is difficult to conceive any national establishment founded on independent principles. The presbyterians wished that the divine right of their own form of church government should have been officially recognised, but this absurdity was obviated by a judicious motion of Whitelock, which recommended it generally, without touching on this delicate question. Whatever might have been the decision of these divines, it was probable that Erastian principles must have prevailed, at least in the House of Commons; for, when the ordinance for suspending ignorant and scandalous persons from the Lord's supper was passed, an appeal from the decision of the elders was allowed to take place, which ultimately fell under the cognisance of the parliament; and all members of either House were, in such places as they resided, ex officio triers of the competency of the candidates for admission into the offices of the church. This point was more immediately brought into discussions by the necessity of ordaining some ministers, in order to fill up the vacancies which various circumstances had occasioned in the church. Many of the orthodox divines had been driven from The Directory, as its name imports, does not itself contain a form of prayer, but gives the outline of such a service as every minister is left to himself to frame: a method which apparently offers some advantages, when the person officiating is possessed of any very peculiar talent for such compositions, but even then must always make the congregation depend on his abilities in a way far beyond what is desirable; but in the ordinary course of things, is liable to most serious objections, and must virtually tend to prevent all public devotion, since either the individual will relinquish the plan of extempore composition, by constantly using a form of his own, (and this can hardly be expected to be so good as one composed by persons selected for the purpose,) or his varying expressions will be apt to confuse the less enlightened part of his hearers. The points on which the Directory essentially differs from the service of with the power of teaching, but comthe church of England are, that the bine in their persons a judicial author lessons are read consecutively from ity, and, in conjunction with the elders, Sunday to Sunday, and the Apocrypha possess the right of expelling from the is entirely omitted. The use of spon- sacrament. It is in this that the chief sors in baptism, and of the ring in mar- difference consists between the episcoriage, is dispensed with; in the visitation palian and presbyterian form of church of the sick nothing is said of confession government, with regard to discipline or absolution; and the burial of the dead over the laity. The minister of the is accompanied with no religious rite. church of England may exclude, for The rules about ordination are peculiarly the time," an offending brother from indefinite; and the power vested in the the sacrament; but then he is bound hands of the presbytery seemed to lie (within fourteen days, by the Rubric open to the admission of almost any one, introduced after the Savoy Conference) provided he would take the covenant, to inform the bishop, who is to proceed and could satisfy his examiners of the against the offender; so that it will be evidence of his calling to the ministry, necessary for the clergyman so repeland of the grace of God which was in ling to have good grounds for all he him. It is not, indeed, stated how this does, and to be able to prove his charge. last particular is to be ascertained, and Whereas, by the presbyterian authorthere must always be great danger of ity, the minister, together with the lay hypocrisy, when men become the wit-elders, is the judge of the propriety of nesses of their own qualifications on such excommunication, and it remains points which admit of no definite proof. with the offending party to appeal to The chief peculiarity of the doctrinal the higher tribunal of a superior court, works is the prominence with which the tenet of predestination is brought forward. The Confession of Faith of the assembly, however, is not exactly the same as the Articles published by the parliament, for only a part of it was authorized by them.3 § 591. The recommendations of the assembly with regard to church government, are imbodied in a tract which has been mentioned as published among their other works, and which, though approved of by the church of Scotland, never received any authority from the parliament. According to this, the officers of the church consist of pastors, teachers, other governors, and deacons. There seems no other difference between the two first, than as they mark out different duties of the same office. They constitute the only individuals who, in ordinary language, are called ministers, and are invested not only The word essentially is used, since, under the directions given in the Directory, the church of England service might be employed, except in these particulars. 2 Neal, iii. 320. These works are frequently to be met with in a small 24mo. vol. neatly printed. The Solemn League and Covenant, as well as the former cove nant, form a part of the same little book. The Directory is also printed in the appendix to Neal, No. 8, p. lxiii. 4 See § 587. of which the clergyman in question may happen to be an influential member; at all events, the person expelled will have to prove the original excommunication to have been wrong, and be subject to the onus probandi. Thus, whatever might have been the tyranny of bishops, the people would have gained little by erecting a bishopric in every parish. The other governors, or lay elders, were to compose a kind of council for the pastor, and are copied from the institutions of the Jewish church. Deacons were, in strict conformity with their original appointment, persons selected to take care of the temporal wants of the indigent, a sort of overseers of the poor." If an 5 In episcopal government the bishop is judge; episcopalian clergyman quarrel with any of his in presbyterian, the minister and elders. parishioners, he cannot excommunicate them which he has no control, and which has a control without proving them guilty before a court, over over him. The presbyterian may excommunicate proprio jure, and the party excommunicated must appeal, and the appeal will, in each case, lie to a court of which the clergyman may be a member, and therefore a judge in his own cause. The whole question of excommunication is one of great difficulty. Some good may arise from it in preventing scandal; but very little with regard to the offending party. See Baxter's own Life, i. 92. 6 Rubric for the Lord's Supper. 7 Acts vi. 8 For further particulars concerning the presbyterian discipline, see § 587, and a note in Rapin, 目 § 592. This form of church govern- | was not deficient in life and good moment was nowhere established except rals, might assemble a congregation in London and Lancashire, and was wherever he pleased; and every sonever invested with such authority as ciety, having the means of excluding its friends demanded, since an ultimate an offensive member from its commuappeal lay to the parliament. This was nion, might be deemed a church to all rendered absolutely necessary from the intents and purposes. Any member power which the church would other- of any religious community, who was wise have possessed, and which, had it ejected from one society, might enrol been allowed to exert all the civil influ- himself in another; so that the coercive ence of which it was capable, might discipline of the church was reduced to have proved as tyrannical to the repub- a mere nothing. It must be rememlic as it did to James I., while he was bered that the church of England possubjected to its sway in Scotland. It sesses in the bishops' courts a very is curious to observe the earnestness considerable authority for the reformawith which its advocates attacked this tion of manners; that, at the period of restrictive check, which the parliament which we are speaking, this was conwere wise enough never to take off. stantly exercised; and that the Court The assembly of divines petitioned of High Commission, by supporting and against it; the Scotch sent commissioners and remonstrated; but the amendments of the latter were burnt by the hands of the common hangman, and the assembly were informed that they had incurred a præmunire, by discussing subjects which were not proposed to them by the Houses, and were requested to prove, from Scripture, that the authority which they claimed was a jus divinum, and clearly established by the word of God. We have before seen the probable argument in favour of episcopacy, which, if not perfectly convincing, is at all events much stronger than that for the presbytery, inasmuch as the voice of all authentic history concurs in establishing the fact, that at an early period bishops were a distinct order in the church, a point which the other party can never establish in favour of presbyterian government without them. And though these queries "de jure divino" were answered by some individual ministers assembled at Sion College, yet they remained with the assembly without an answer, till the whole fabric was destroyed by the prevalence of independ ency. aiding the minor courts, and sometimes by superseding their authority, rendered the ecclesiastical discipline formidable, and in some cases oppressive. In the presbyterian government the authority was placed in lower hands, but by no means diminished; and in both cases, civil punishments were the consequence of neglecting ecclesiastical censures. The point at issue, then, on the part of the independents was, whether there should be any coercive discipline at all; and it was perhaps natural, that an army, which had conquered the king, should not quietly surrender themselves to the rule of their priests. Religion, real or pretended, had contributed much to preserve the discipline of the army; and they who in the field guided the sword of the flesh, took upon them in the camp to use that of the Spirit, so that almost all the good officers of the parliament army became, by degrees, great preachers. The presbyterian form of church government is very republican, and it was partly from this reason that the republican party in the state favoured its establishment, though they never allowed it to possess an authority independent of themselves. When the army had subdued the king, the republicans wished them to lay down their arms; but, in the division of spoil among robbers, it is difficult to $593. The tendency of the system of the independents was such, that under it no established religion could exist in the state, since every teacher, who ii. 297; printed also in Neal, iii. 323; or the bur-say nay to him who has the power in den of Issachar, printed in the Phoenix, ii. 260. There is a Compendium of the Laws of the Church of Scotland, published 1830, in Edinburgh. 2 Neal, iii. 279. See $460. his own hands. The presbyterian ministry favoured the form of government which was best suited to themselves, and which their party deemed the legi timate authority of the country; but the text on which they might found therr army, with their preachers, were ready change of conduct towards him: for to say, in spiritual as well as temporal this purpose they alarmed his fears, concerns, "Who shall be lord over us?" and facilities for his escape were affordIt is impossible, as it was before ob- ed to his friends, of which they took served, to state the exact nature of in- advantage; while the general vigilancy dependency; every separate church of their guards made the flight from may vary, but the principle of it is to the kingdom almost impossible. It destroy the existence of any priesthood was thus, perhaps, that he left Hampat all. The presbyterian establishment ton Court without the knowledge of continued till the Restoration, though the army, but was deceived in the it was shorn of its glory, and the bonds of its union and strength were broken. The only place where the independents had the power of establishing a church government of their own was in Wales; but what was there done, was accompanied with so much manifest dishonesty, that it can be hardly admitted as a specimen of their principles. hopes of finding a ship ready to convey him away. It was thus that he fell into the hands of the governor of Carisbrook castle, and was detained as a prisoner till his removal for trial. It was necessary for Cromwell that the king should be removed. It was necessary for the army that they should not allow the king, by joining with the republican party, to annihilate the influence of the soldiery; and they cared perhaps less for the fate of Charles than for their own interests: had he escaped, they would have little regarded it, provided he did not join the parliament and the republicans. § 594. Liberty of conscience was the aim of the independents, who wished also to subject the ministry to the power of the state. They may be identified with the army to a certain degree, as the presbyterians became the same body with the republicans; and the struggle $595. The moderate republicans which remained lay between these two foresaw their danger, and were anxious confederate bands. The king, by sur-to re-establish the king. The Scotch rendering himself to the Scotch, who would have consented to his restoration, were combined with the presbyterians, because they perceived the risk they became indirectly the prisoner of the ran of falling a prey to the English parliament, till the army got possession government, whatever it might be, and of him through the violent seizure of they were ready to adopt either loyalty his person by Cornet Joyce: both these or rebellion, provided their own inteparties possessed many individuals who rests were promoted. But Charles bewere anxious to restore tranquillity by lieved that the episcopal government re-establishing a limited monarchy; but of the church was the one which the the violent partisans, who ruled their apostles had established, and he had several proceedings, could hardly hope suffered too much by taking one false for safety, if the king were restored, step (the death of Lord Straffords) ever and must at all events have lost that to adventure his soul on another act influence which they had acquired. which was in direct violation of his Anxious, therefore, for the destruction principles. Had Charles consented to of Charles, the difficulty which re-adopt the presbyterian form of church mained consisted in the means whereby government, the party which was treatthis object might be effected. The his- ing with him might possibly have been tory of his escape from Hampton Court strong enough to restore him to a nomiis so enveloped in obscurity, that the nal throne; at least he had good reason utmost we can do is to conjecture the real cause of it. The leaders of the army, who had for the time treated him with considerable civility, now wished for his death, and for a pre 1 Neal, iv. 172. 4 Many of those who had contributed to this catastrophe, now saw the lengths into which they had been carried, and exerted themselves to hinder the event when it was too late. Forty-seven of the presbyterian ministers in London presented a petition to General Fairfax and his council of war, wherein they boldly and plainly rebuked a victorious army, and pointed out the villany of 2 Walker's Sufferings of the Clergy, i. 147-169. their proceedings. (Collier, ii. 859.) * See 608. 5 Life of Col. Hutchinson, ii. 156. to believe this, and his resistance on 1648) is more fully drawn up, on the this point obviously led to his death. side of episcopacy, inasmuch as his The decision of the king on this ques- majesty was here assisted by Usher, tion was by no means the effect of ob- Sanderson, Sheldon, and Duppa, wherestinacy, but of a thorough conviction, as in the other case all was done by arising from a very perfect understand himself: the presbyterian argument is ing of the argument. He was twice well stated, but labours under the same engaged in the dispute, and it fortu- difficulty; it avoids the real question. nately happens that his papers are That in favour of episcopacy is not preserved. perhaps so sound as the king's at NewIn the first, Mr. Henderson, who castle; they assert that episcopacys was deemed a learned and a moderate may be sufficiently proved from Holy presbyterian, was sent to satisfy the Scripture; a position which a presbyking's doubts, while he was prisoner in terian would indubitably deny; and the Scotch army at Newcastle, (May which cannot probably be carried be29-July 16th, 1646.) The arguments yond the point that it is in no wise inof the king are nearly those which are consistent, but rather agrees with the before stated, (§ 460;) the answer of account there given of the church ofHenderson appears to be a petitio prin- ficers. Charles does not insist on the cipii, and an avoiding of the question. divine right, but puts these three quesThere is not throughout a single argu- tions, to which no answer was made: ment on the jus divinum of presbyte- 1. Did Christ and his apostles appoint rian ordination; (that is, an argument any one form of church government? to show that episcopal ordination is not 2. If so, may this be changed by huas consistent with the word of God as man authority? 3. Was this governpresbyterian ;) and this was what they ment episcopal or presbyterian ?7 virtually maintained in their sermons when they attacked episcopacy. The argument really is this. The point is not settled in Scripture, the expressions of which are not contradictory to either hypothesis; the presbyterian hypothesis is inconsistent with ecclesiastical history: which hypothesis therefore is the most probable? All Henderson says is, It is not settled in Scripture. Tradition is inadmissible into theological argument, or the papists must carry the day. Episcopacy has obviously done much harm to religion; therefore it ought to be cast out. Had he been pleading for the reform of episcopacy, his argument would have been good, "therefore it ought to be reformed." One query of the king received no answer; viz.: What warrant is there in the word of God for subjects to endeavour to force their king's conscience, and to make him alter laws against his will? The discussion at Newport (Sept. 18, King Charles I. Works, 75-90. 2 This is a position which the member of the church of England would never grant. We are ready to meet the Roman Catholics on the ground of tradition, when the meaning of that term is rightly settled. 3 Letter, i. 76. 5 Letter, iii. 2, 616. 6 Letter, iii. 9, 620, and 646. by the presbyterians, is frequently confused, from |