In times of battle the physicians and nurses and stretcher-bearers worked almost till they dropped; to work 48 hours under heavy shell-fire and gas attacks without rest, was not uncommon and Dr. Franklin Dunham won the M.C. for so remaining at his post 4 days; many Medicals obtained the M.C., or D.S.O., and many more earned it. Capt. G. W. Armstrong from Toronto, received the latter honour for dressing 117 stretcher cases in 27 hours and then going to the aid of a wounded officer on the field. There was no immunity for Hospitals or their ships-as the German air-raids at Etâples and Doullens in May, 1918, and the sinking of the Llandovery Castle with the escape of only six out of a Hospital personnel of 97, amply proved. As to the strength of the C.A.M.C., it may be said that on Aug. 10th, 1915, there were 378 officers, 535 Nursing Sisters and 3,620 of other ranks while on Nov. 30th, 1918, they totalled, respectively, 1,451, 1,886, and 12,243.

In Dentistry the Canadian Army Dental Corps led the way and Sir Auckland Geddes stated to the British Dental Association during May, 1918, that "the whole of the British forces have only a little more than twice the number of dentists belonging to the Canadian Dental Corps and, as regards organization and administration, the inferiority is equally manifest to those who are familiar with the details." Colonel J. A. Armstrong, c.M.G., was Director-General of the Corps and the value of its work to the health and stamina and morale of the troops was very great. Colonel Armstrong, in May, stated that his staff had already performed over one and threequarter million dental operations, including French peasants, as well as soldiers, since the Unit was organized in May, 1915. Another specialization of the Dental Service was jaw treatment. After injuries were received on the battlefield these cases were drafted to the Ontario Hospital at Orpington, Kent, where a special staff of highly skilled operatives produced remarkable results. By the close of 1918 the Corps had performed 2,225,442 Dental operations.

Much might be said of the Engineers with their multitude of bridges-pontoon, trestle, heavy pontoon and heavy steel-erected under very trying conditions of haste and enemy fire, of rush materials and supplies, crowds of wounded men, ever-moving masses of artillery and troops. They had to deal with technical and practical subjects combined, such as roads, tramways, water-supply, mining, tunnelling, the supply and manufacture of engineering stores, construction of trenches, subways, mule tracks, camouflage for the guns, etc. The story of one fight on Sept. 27th, by a War correspondent, tells the tale of many another action of the Engineers: "The problem was to get the Infantry and the guns over the Canal in the face of enemy barrage, and to provide sufficient facilities in the way of roads, bridges, tramways, etc., which would insure the supply of ammunition for the guns being sustained, and the supply of stores, munitions and rations for the large number of troops engaged. As it was clear that the enemy's barrage would fall naturally on the Canal and be retained there, the following were

provided for: seven infantry foot-bridges of an unsinkable type; ten crossings for guns and horse transport, five of which had to be developed at once for heavy traffic even while the continuous stream of guns and ammunition waggons was pouring over them. Great was the preparation. Following were the results: Before zero hour 18 miles of roads had been repaired up to the front line and seven miles of tramways constructed. On these tramways over 3,000 tons of ammunition per day were being delivered to advanced dumps and gun positions. The huge concentration of horses was provided with the necessary water supply."

Brig. Gen. W. B. Lindsay, C.M.G., D.S.O., was the efficient head of this great Service. The Corps tramways began when the light railways left off, and in their own areas were said to carry about 2,000 tons a day; the work also included the preparation of moving or moveable shelter for armies when advancing, or retreating, with accommodation for officers, men, horses, sanitary appliances, incinerators and water-supply; the Canadian Engineers also had charge of the Signal Service with its intricate system of wireless, telegraph and telephone communication, and of the anti-aircraft searchlight arrangements.

The Chaplain Service was brave, sympathetic and powerful for cheer and good-feeling. It controlled and guided the entertainment and recreation programme for the whole Corps. Food and cigarette canteens, coffee stalls, athletic supplies, games and matches were amongst the matters handled, besides religious services and funerals. Financially, between 1915 and March 31st, 1918, the Service received $3,450,091 and expended $3,122,153; during three weeks' operations around Passchendaele, as an illustration, the distribution included 12 tons of coffee, 11⁄2 tons of sugar, 2,500 tins of milk, 15,000 packages of biscuits, 100,000 packages of cigarettes, 60,000 sheets of paper and 1,000 newspapers, etc. The Director of the Service was Hon. Colonel the Rev. Dr. J. M. Almond, C.M.G., who had four assistant Directors and an establishment which numbered in March, 1917, 102 Chaplains of the Church of England, 53 Roman Catholics, 58 Presbyterians, 33 Methodists, 14 Baptists and 20 others. Ten more were afterwards added. Their ministrations on the battle-field, in hospitals, in camps and places of amusement or rest, were continuous and self-sacrificial with, also, a considerable elimination of denominational feeling.

Out of the 426 Chaplains who served from time to time in this so-called non-combatant Corps, 2 were killed in action, four died of wounds or other war-causes, and 21 were wounded on duty; during the later advances of 1918 about 20 Chaplains were selected to accompany the troops and they set a very fine example of steadiness under fire and bravery in their religious services. In England they did a great work in meeting the men from trains and in helping them when wounded or sick. Five Canadian clergymen won the C.M.G., 9 obtained the coveted D.S.O., 34 were awarded the M.C. for courage and devotion-altogether 103 were mentioned in Despatches

or granted Honours. Roland Hill (Aug. 29th) told this story of one of them: "The Chaplain of a mounted rifle brigade went over the top on the morning the attack began, with a party of stretcherbearers. For hours he worked like a Trojan helping to carry out the wounded, ministering to their needs, and offering what encouragement he could to the dying. His example was an inspiration throughout the Brigade, for the rôle he was filling was quickly passed along the line. While he was binding up the wounds of a badly wounded man, a shell fell and burst near him.'

Of miscellaneous services the Canadian Salvage Corps was an institution of great value and its duty was to collect and conserve all discarded articles, with a view to their return to military stores, and for disposal to the best advantage if unserviceable. In nine months, ending Feb. 28th, 1918, $211,000 was saved in this way. Canadian Labour Battalions were also organized for general construction and repair work behind the lines with availability, in part, for fighting during an emergency. Those so chosen were called Infantry Works Battalions. Equal to the greatest of War Services was the splendid Transport system between Canada and England initiated by Sir A. H. Harris, late of the C.P.R., and managed by him throughout the War. It should be stated that when the War broke out the Imperial and Canadian Governments were faced by no greater problem than that of assembling and transporting overseas the Army supplies from Canada. Lord Shaughnessy came to their assistance by loaning Mr. A. H. Harris, special traffic representative of the C.P.R., together with a large staff of traffic experts selected from various departments of the Railway, to act as a nucleus for the Overseas Transport Office.

The work of this office grew tremendously until Mr. Harris directed no less than four-fifths of the export trade of Canada, inland and overseas, and the best evidence that the work was well done was the fact that Government, railway and steamship interests were all satisfied, while the general business of the country continued with a minimum of disturbance. Between Aug. 14th, 1914, and February, 1915, War Office supplies were moved overseas in chartered vessels; after that time transports were supplied by the Admiralty under an arrangement negotiated by Mr. Harris in London. The bunkering of transports was done in Canada under the direction and supervision of the Director, as was the dry-docking of vessels when necessary. The volume of tonnage cleared from the seaboard was facilitated and delays minimized through recognition by the Presidents of the Canadian Pacific and Grand Trunk Railways of the growth of the Transport Service, and the need of concentration in authority for purposes of efficient direction. They issued instructions that the regulation and control, inland, of all Imperial transport were vested in the Director of Overseas Transport and ordered that all transport so consigned should be given priority of movement on the Railways over all traffic excepting passengers. Mr. Harris well deserved the K.B.E. which came to him in 1918.

Canadian
Aviation

in the War;
Other War

Services and
Incidents

Apart from the great work of the Canadian Corps, the most conspicuous of the Dominion's War efforts were those of its Aviators. Yet they were unorganized, unrecognized officially, and did not constitute a separate unit; they had no centre from which to radiate enthusiasm and obtain support and win reputation-no Corps such as had won distinction for Great Britain or for Australia in the East. The young Canadian simply took to the air as the British did to the sea and by individual effort, voluntary action, and clever initiative, swarmed into the British service until both the Royal Flying Corps and the Royal Naval Air Service recognized a peculiar aptitude in the splendid work done by Canadians while fighting in the air with their British brothers. The Canadian Army Corps, with the other Canadian Services, was complete except in this one branch and there were plenty of aviators in the later years of the War to form Canadian Squadrons; but, for some reason or other, Sir Sam Hughes did not approve separate organization though from time to time much was done in Canada to encourage Imperial enlistment and to facilitate Imperial construction of machines and training of men; in the last months of the War Sir Edward Kemp took up the formation of a Corps and completed its organization. No official statistics were made public but by the end of the struggle it became well known that from 25 to 30 per cent. of the Royal Air Force were Canadians; the Canadian figures finally issued by the Overseas Minister were as follows:

Officers seconded or attached to the R.F.C., R.N.A.S., and R.A.F., up to December 31, 1918

1,239

Other ranks of the Overseas Military Forces of Canada transferred
to the above from June 1, 1916, to December 31, 1918...
Cadets enlisted in Canada by the Imperial Authorities and despatched
to the above Services

2,721

4,280

8,240

Officers under these conditions were in the main either (1) seconded to the Air Forces from the Overseas Military Forces of Canada, or (2) were non-commissioned officers and men discharged from the Overseas Military Forces in order to enter the Air Services, or (3) were Cadets enlisted by the Imperial authorities in Canada. In the first case, only, were they subject to Canadian Government action or recall. There were, of course, thousands of Cadets constantly in training who were not ranked in the above total as officers and at the time of the union of the land and sea Air forces in England, the total of all ranks stood at 13,495. These young Canadians and their British associates had to face a double danger the new uncharted perils of the air when learning and the dangers from new, rapidly evolving and improving, but not yet perfected, machines, as well as the personal problem of nerves, health, accidents, which might dash the aviation student to death at any moment; all this, in addition to the perils of fighting the enemy at the Front. At first the enemy was met in the air with

one-man machines and an aviator armed only with a revolver; then came a carbine and then a couple of machine guns and by the close of the War a whole special armament with several men to look after the various lines of work which were carried on.

At first these included scouting, flying over the enemy lines. and observation; then the Aeroplane developed into great engines of war with fighting and bombing in the air, raiding the enemy on the ground with machine and even heavier guns, moving 120 miles an hour and shooting 1,200 bullets a minute, destroying enemy balloons and blinding the eyes of the enemy forces while providing eyes for their own army, using scientific photography and making plans or maps from the air, utilizing telescopes, wireless and other inventions. The conditions of joining the Service were as follows: (1) Age-18 to 30, with men over 25 requiring special qualifications; Education-High School for 3 years or a special course; Health-absolutely medically fit according to standards; Pay$1.10 per day during instruction with all necessary accommodation, uniforms, etc., plus 25 cents to 50 cents per day flying-pay and, when commissioned as 2nd Lieutenant, a total of about $5.00 per day. The term was 4 years, if the War should last so long, but not otherwise. The subjects for training included aerial observation, instruments, wireless, map reading, bombs and bomb dropping, aerial photography, aerial fighting, meteorology, engine construction, aeroplane construction, machine guns.

Training machines, in Canada, cost $7,500, Scout machines $10,000 and battle-planes $15,000 each. During 1918 there were fully 10,000 aviators under training in Canadian Camps-Borden, Leaside, Armour Heights, Deseronto, Beamsville and Hamiltonwith Maj.-Gen. Charles Hoare in command of the R.F.C. for both Canada and the States. The union of the R.F.C. and the R.N.A.S. by the King's command on Mch. 7th, as the Royal Air Force, aided in the effectiveness of the Service and facilitated recruiting and training. As to this work in Canada certain information was given in the Commons on May 16th: (1) The percentage of accidents to the number of Canadian Cadets named to Mar. 31, 1918 was 3.69 fatal, 2.50 serious and 3.36 slight; (2) in cases of permanent injury the Imperial Government granted pensions and, so far, about 580 men had come out from England as experts to aid in the training-including 47 Canadians with experience.

The Toronto Globe and the Star and some other critical organs demanded Canadian control of these Aviation interests in Canada: they did not demand, however, that Canada should pay the expenses of training the men and supplying the machines and building the aerodromes! Nor was anything said about the difficulty of aeroplane timber in British Columbia where labour was short and the Imperial Munitions Board, which had this part of the work in hand, could only get 3,200 men in June, 1918, to supply an almost unlimited British and French demand for Coast timber. Later on, however, these and other journals did urge the organization of a Canadian Flying Corps. Meanwhile, General Hoare was quietly