had made, so far as was then known, but small impression except in the southern borders of the Hill Tracts and in the neighbourhood of the banks of the lower parts of the rivers.

One of the points which struck Sanderson, with his Mysore experience, was the fact that the forest people of this region built their houses on stagings clear of the ground. In this connection he wrote: "I believe the one fact of the dwellings of jungle-people in Southern India-at least the Kurrabas and Sholagas in Mysore-being built on the ground, is sufficient to account for their miserable condition. The miasma which causes jungle fevers is said to be heavy and to hang close above the surface, for which reason it is unsafe to sleep on, or close to, the ground in malarious localities. The Kurrabas and Sholagas do not understand this; and their children, from their short stature, live more in the unhealthy stratum of air than adults. This may partly account for the greater proportion of sickness among them."

The discovery of the connection between the mosquito and malaria had not yet been made.

'In the Garrow and Chittagong Hills in the north-east and east of Bengal the jungle tribes live in large and wellconstructed houses raised 8 or 10 feet from the ground on bamboo supports. In front of each is a verandah for the children to play on, and in which their parents sit when idle; the whole is reached by a ladder and is of such simple construction that any jungle man can build himself a house in two or three days, with no other tool but his axe. Thus the people sleep well above the reach of malaria, and are kept dry and comfortable in all weathers instead of grovelling on the damp ground, as do the Kurrabas and Sholagas."

A quarter of a century later the author had occasion to visit a village high up above the Barkal Falls on the Karnafuli River, some 40 miles or so to the east of Sanderson's camp on the Myanee River. It had become necessary to explain to the village headman the precise nature of the Forest Department rules in force on the subject of felling and drift timber, both of which were being far from closely adhered to. In a note in his diary made at the time the writer of this history finds the following entry:

"Karnafuli River, 30 miles above Barkal Falls: A queer nomadic population this. A bit of a 'jhum' on the river bank, a bamboo hut built on piles with a front verandah,

usually filled with babies, and a dugout or two appear to satisfy their wants in life. And the whole lot, with the exception of the babies, can be obtained free from the forest.”

The quarter of a century in this region had brought about but little change!

In concluding this part of the History of the Forests, which concerns primarily the work of exploring the forests and, to some extent, their demarcation, full credit should be accorded to the men engaged upon this duty. The work was extremely arduous, carried out under conditions of hardship it would be difficult to portray to the uninitiated, but which many Forest Officers with most of their service behind them will readily appreciate. To the modern Forest Officer in most parts of India the old conditions of life and forest work will be but a name only. During the period dealt with in this part small tents or rough village huts or hastily erected bamboo or grass sheds formed the home of the Forest Officer for the greater part of the year. European stores were not procurable without great trouble and expense. The Forest Officer depended upon his gun and rifle. Little attention was paid to seasons of the year, the work being carried on equally during the torrid heat of the hot weather or during the drenching rains of the monsoon when the forests were full of malaria. In many parts of India the forests are closed down during the latter period nowadays and the forest staff are located out in the plains.

Such being the conditions under which the first members of newly constituted Forest Service worked, we should readily accord them all honour for the wonderfully efficient manner in which they brought forest organisation into being and made possible the great development which the next three decades were to witness. It would be invidious to mention here any names of these great Pioneers. They have already been alluded to in the pages of this and previous parts.

PART II

THE PROGRESS OF FOREST CONSERVANCY AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FOREST

DEPARTMENT IN INDIA, 1871-1900

CHAPTER XIII

A BRIEF REVIEW OF HISTORICAL FACTORS AND ADMINISTRATIVE ACTS AFFECTING THE PROGRESS OF FOREST CONSERVANCY, 1871-1900.

B

EFORE considering the progress made in the conservation of the forests in the different provinces of India during the last three decades of the nineteenth century it will be necessary to glance at certain occurrences and administrative measures which were given effect to during the period now to be reviewed; for both were not without their influence on the development of the administration of the forests and the progress of a forest policy for the country as a whole.

It has been already mentioned that Lord Mayo was appointed Governor-General in January, 1869. During his short tenure of office he set himself the task of adjusting the finances of India so that the expenditure in normal years should be within the income. The attempt itself is one well worth remembering to the credit of this gifted but ill-fated Viceroy. For long years Indian finance had remained in a state of chaos due, firstly, to the heavy military expenditure entailed throughout a period of almost one hundred years, and, secondly, to the inefficient method of accounting of the East India Company. By imposing extra additional taxes and enforcing rigid economy Lord Mayo succeeded in his purpose. He reorganised the Public Works Department and paid the closest attention to the working of every Department in order to secure efficiency without waste. He also introduced the system of State Railways, and this to some extent had an important bearing on the work of the Forest Department during the early part of the period here dealt with.

Lord Mayo's method of financial reform was based on decentralisation. He introduced a measure of decentralisation which made every Provincial Government responsible for its