could not be deemed by any means high; indeed, so far from its being excessive, as alleged by the Railway Board, it is less than should properly be charged; and, under the circumstances set forth in our Proceedings, we are strongly of opinion that the rate may hereafter be gradually raised until the price of fuel obtained from natural jungle is more nearly assimilated to the cost of artificial production. We therefore decidedly deprecate any reduction in the present rate."

This dispute and discussion over the ruling fuel supplies, a question which was agitating Local Governments and administrations elsewhere in India, had its bright side for the Forest Department, as the final paragraph of the above Despatch indicates :

We forward a Report from the Conservator of Forests on the quantity of fuel reserves actually existing, and upon the wants of the Forest Department for the purpose of increasing them to the required extent. We have given his proposals our most careful consideration, and we concur with him in believing that if any real progress is to be made in the matter of the railway fuel supply it is essential that the Forest Department should be strengthened to some extent; and, having in view the importance of early action in this matter, we have directed the immediate nomination of three third-class Assistant Conservators to the Department, and have instructed Major Beddome to report what additional subordinate assistance he will require for the charge of the fuel reserves already existing, and for those about to be created. We have reported our Proceedings on this subject for the confirmation of the Government of India."

By the end of 1870 the Government of India noted with satisfaction that, in compliance with their oft-repeated suggestion to the Madras Government as to the necessity of demarcating suitable forest tracts to provide a permanent supply of fuel for the working of the railways in the Presidency, good progress had been made. Forest blocks had been demarcated in the Cuddapah, N. Arcot, Salem and Coimbatore districts, aggregating 17,000 acres or about 26 square miles. The Conservator had estimated that nearly 100 square miles would be required, basing his estimate on the assumption that 50 acres would cover the average annual requirements of one mile of railway, four trains running daily. The estimate

was framed on the advice of Brandis and Dr. Stewart, Conservator in the Punjab. But the Government of India rightly said that there were no data before them regarding the yield of wood per acre under different conditions in the country. There were many varying factors, one that growth would be slower on the east than the west half of Madras. Also the length of railway lines constructed or sanctioned was 1340 miles. In addition at least 100 more miles would be sanctioned. In fact, that as the formation of the reserves would take time, the railway would expand, and it would therefore be advisable to take up a larger area than then contemplated, as it would not be difficult to dispose of the surplus land at a later date. Moreover, in addition to the lines in the Madras Presidency, there were the railways projected in the Mysore territory. The necessity of taking measures to provide a supply of fuel for these lines had already been urged on the Chief Commissioner of Mysore. The Government of India, in view of the importance of increasing the Staff of the Department in Madras, sanctioned the entertainment of the three additional thirdclass Assistant Conservators.

The reminders addressed by the Government of India to the Governor in Council in Madras on the necessity of demarcating areas of reserved forest as soon as possible to prevent the alienation of the land were needed, as several instances of Government forest lands having been given up by the Revenue authorities to private individuals, without the consent of or knowledge of the Forest Department, had come to light. The Secretary of State had addressed (23rd July, 1868) a strongworded protest on this subject to the Governor in Council, Madras, demanding full reports and the amount of loss entailed to the Government by such unauthorised alienations.

Of a somewhat different nature, though often of very great historical interest, were claims made to forest lands on a larger scale, claims often supported by powerful native interests with but superficial proofs, often of a doubtful nature, to sustain them. A famous one, which was at length disposed of during the period here dealt with, was the claim of the trustees of the Tirunhally Temple in the Wynaad Taluk of the Malabar district to certain forest lands situated round the temple site. These claims had already been rejected by the Government of Madras on the ground that the lands had escheated to Government on the rebellion of the Pychee Rajah, who had openly resisted the British when the Taluk of Wynaad was

ceded to us by Tippoo Sultan in 1799, the said Pychee Rajah having died in open rebellion against us in 1806. After the suppression of the latter rebellion the estates of all concerned in it were forfeited; but in the absence of any survey or land register, and in consequence of the unhealthy and unsettled state of the country, only a very small portion of the escheats was really taken possession of. In 1824 the Collector, Mr. Vaughan, had issued a proclamation enumerating the lands which were escheats, but he only referred to lands paying rental as well as assessment, and did not include the forest or waste lands. In 1859 the claims of Government to lands in the Wynaad had been brought before the Board of Revenue. Considerable areas which could have justly been confiscated were allowed to remain in the hands of their occupiers. In all other cases where no one claimed ownership of the land Government took possession; and where ownership was claimed full opportunity was afforded to put in proofs of ownership.

In 1862 the settlement officer in the Wynaad wrote a Report on this case. The trustees had due notice of the enquiry, but produced no documents. In 1865 they applied direct to the Secretary of State and said they had documents. These were subsequently produced before the Collector of Malabar and were shown to be worthless. All that the trustees could show was that they had on isolated occasions, commencing in 1823, exercised proprietary rights in the forest, and that on one occasion their claim was recognised by an officer of Government. On the other hand, it was proved that the officers of Government had on frequent public and unmistakable occasions exercised similar rights on behalf of Government without opposition. In 1845 the Kotiete Rajahs filed a suit with reference to this property. When the Collector intervened and represented that the lands were an escheat, the trustees remained silent. In 1853 the trustees sued the Collector for granting a premium to plant coffee on one of the hills; they were non-suited, and appealed in vain to the higher Courts. The Government of Madras felt, therefore, that they were on safe ground in forwarding the memorial without further remarks on their part. The Secretary of State agreed that the Memorialist had no case, but concluded his Despatch with the following remark:

"Referring, however, to the great reputation enjoyed by this temple, and the reverence in which it is held throughout

a large tract of country, I think it desirable that great care should be taken not to offend the prejudices of those who so esteem the temple. This, it seems to me, may be avoided by preserving the forest and jungle in the immediate neighbourhood of the temple, and handing it over to the Forest Officers for conservation, with a caution that no measures should be taken which are likely to run counter to the feelings of those who come to the shrine."

This case has been alluded to in detail, because it is typical of claims to forest property of the same kind which were made all over the country for long years once its value had come to be understood. For, as has been shown, at the beginning of the century neither Government nor people considered the forest as having any value at all; that, in fact, forest land was only valuable when it had been cleared for agriculture and so could be made to bring in land revenue.

The progress of the Conolly teak plantations at Nilumbur was uniformly satisfactory during the period under review, an Assistant Conservator, Mr. Ferguson, being in charge of the plantation and division. In a Despatch (R.F. No. 6, dated 24th February, 1868) the Secretary of State for India, in commenting on the satisfactory position of these plantations, wrote: "I fully approve of continuing to designate these plantations the Conolly plantations,' in remembrance of the wisdom and forethought of the founder." Every Forester will heartily endorse this sanction.

In a Report on the division, dated 27th April, 1870, Mr. Ferguson gave the following note on the plantations :

Seedlings planted out: teak, 52,000; blackwood, 3000; 'kurremurda [Karra marda (Terminalia tomentosa)], 1700; 'erol' [? Xylia dolabriformis], 3000; all these, as well as the older plantations, are breaking into leaf from the early showers this year, and are now looking extremely well."

The following is the detail of the operations carried out during the year at Nilumbur :

"52 acres planted with 52,000 teak seedlings; 10 acres planted with 10,000 blackwood seedlings and other jungle wood seedlings; 2300 acres of plantation weeded; 590 acres pruned; 70 acres of site for fresh planting prepared; 600 logs of teak and jungle wood felled; 240 logs dragged into forest

depot; 904 logs floated to coast depot; 5457 saplings floated to coast depot; and 3082 bamboos."

Some of the oldest areas in these plantations now consisted of fine young pole crops of twenty-four years in age-Conolly having commenced the work, it will be remembered, in 1844. Another interesting plantation experiment which had been started was connected with the Red Sanders-wood (Pterocarpus santalinus). This tree at the time was said to have a singularly local distribution, "being only found in quantity on the gravelly slopes of the rocky hills in North Arcot, Cuddapah and the southern parts of Kurnool." It was comparatively rare in the first of these districts. The Conservator visited the plantation commenced in Cuddapah in October, 1867, and reported on it to Government. The plantation, a small one, was the first successful attempt to cultivate the red sanders-wood of commerce, and so far no regular establishment had been sanctioned for the work. The following is an interesting extract from the Conservator's Report:

"First Attempts Unsuccessful.-Some years ago two officers of the Forest Department made various attempts to raise the red sanders in the Cuddapah district, but there was no result ; the curious flat-winged seed appears to have been planted too deep. Mr. Yarde has succeeded, by watching the process of nature. The seeds are washed down in the north-east monsoon, and are partially covered with sand in the rocky nullahs.

Uses of the tree. The stem is valued for house-posts beyond any other, being impervious to white ants. The smaller portions are carved into images, etc. The leaves are the favourite food of cattle and goats, and are much in demand. The wood is extremely hard, finely grained, and of a garnetred colour, which deepens on exposure. It is employed to dye a permanent reddish brown colour. It communicates a deep red to alcohol and ether, but gives no tinge to water.

Commercial.-In the cold season large heaps of short billets (2 feet to 3 feet), or gnarled roots, may be seen on the Madras beach, where it is sold by weight, and, being heavy, is used as dunnage. In the four years, 1852-53 to 1855-56, the value of this wood exported was Rs.2,20,983, or more than half a lac a year (Madras Exhibition Report, 1857). The NorthWest line traverses the native habitat, and the supply has been diminishing. The seigniorage in Cuddapah was raised from Rs.1 to Rs.6 per cart-load, to prevent its extermination. As