Ex. xxxiv. 9; Lev. iv. 20, 26, 31, 35; v. 10, 18; vi. 7; Num. xiv. 20, 19; xv. 25, 26, 28; Lev. xix. 22; Num. xxx. 5, 12; Lev. v. 13, 16.

The two words (nasa and salah) are found in close proximity, in some passages, and appear to be interchangeable terms. For example, Num. xiv. 18, 19, 20. The first instance in this passage, is nasa, and is rendered forgive; the next is salah, and is rendered pardon. The next again is nasa, forgive, and the next salah, pardon. The words occur in the same order and with the same renderings in Ex. xxxiv. 7, 9. They occur also in Num. xxx. 5, 12, 15. The first two verses have salah here rendered forgive, and the last has nasa rendered bear, in the sense of bear away.

81. The relation of pardon and punishment to each other, is very clearly indicated by the term most commonly employed to express both these ideas. The sinner bears his sins; he carries them about his burden is in exact proportion to his offences, and he continues to carry them till a salutary repentance places him within the reach of pardon. Then the Lord bears his sins for him bears them away, and he is relieved of his burden. That men are certainly punished, cannot be doubted, in view of this representation. To pardon does not remove the punishment, till it has accomplished its intended result. So that both punishment and pardon are in harmony with each other.

82. Some of the sins forbidden by the law of Moses did not admit of pardon, by which we understand that the offenders could not be restored to favor, by any forms or ceremonies known to the law. Hence it is said that there should be no satisfaction, that is, no atonement for the wilful murderer. He must be put to death. So there was no atonement for the criminal guilty of manslaughter, during a certain period. He must be kept in the city of refuge till the death of the high priest. Num. xxxv. 31, 32.

The punishment here referred to was official, not

moral. It placed the offenders outside of the Jewish communion, without there being any way provided, as in other cases, for their restoration. One was utterly cut off by death; and the other could not come back to his former standing, but must be confined in the city of refuge, till the death of the High Priest.

CHAPTER III.

ARCHEOLOGY.

CONTENTS.-Government; Religion; Punishment; The Arts; Metals, Minerals, and Precious Stones; Elements; Vegetable Productions; Implements, Weapons; Weights and Measures; Food and Drink; Animals; Diseases.

83. It will be obvious to every one that the Archæology of different parts of the Bible must be quite unlike, not so much from the fact that changes would take place in the habits and customs of one age, so that they would be different in another; for with the same people under similar circumstances, there was little change of this kind among oriental nations; but more from the fact of a reference being had to different nations, and to the same nation under different circumstances. Another thing must not be overlooked, that where the customs and habits of the people are not changed, there will be in one part of the Bible allusion to things that had not been noticed before, though they were in existence; and other things will be omitted, not because they have passed out of use, but because there is no occasion to refer to them. The book of Genesis treats mainly of the patriarchs in the rural districts of Canaan, and it of course brings to view the customs that belong to that state of society. Occasionally there is reference to other nations and countries, particularly to Egypt; and then a corresponding

set of customs is indicated. In the next four books the circumstances are very different. The Archæology of this portion of the Bible is modified principally by the habits and customs of the Egyptians; for, even after the Hebrews left that country, they may still be expected to retain many of the customs of that land, and to be so far as the circumstances would permit, what they were before, in respect to their modes of life, utensils, dress and ornaments, food, &c.

84. Hence, there are many things alluded to in Genesis very frequently, that are not mentioned here at all, or in a very casual and incidental manner. There we explained these things, while here they are so little referred to as not to demand a separate notice in this article. Other things, not noticed there at all, will require considerable discussion here. All the things here noticed, and not noticed before, must not, however, be set down as new, for a reason before given, viz: that they may have existed, though there was no occasion for alluding to them. And the things here passed over, because the history does not make them prominent, or does not perhaps mention them at all, need not be regarded as having passed out of use.

SECTION I.-GOVERNMENT.

85. The government of Egypt, during the residence of the Hebrews there, was that of an absolute monarchy. The will of the sovereign was the law of the land. But while this was so, his power, like that of all similar monarchs, was subject to certain limitations. Hence Pharaoh was appealed to directly, to liberate the Hebrews and let them leave the country. He was an absolute sovereign, and they could leave only by his permission. That he should have held out so long, in view of the many wonders that were wrought in his sight; need not so much surprise us, when we consider his situation. He must not only be convinced that the

mission of Moses was divine; but his officers must be convinced, both those about his person and others throughout the land. Nor this only, the people must be convinced. It is not safe in any sovereign, however absolute his power, to wholly disregard the wishes of the people he governs. All absolute monarchies have of necessity much of the democratic element in their operation. Hence, when both the officers of Pharaoh and the people importuned him to let the Hebrews go, his full consent was obtained.

The government of the Hebrews in Egypt is indicated only by a few brief allusions. Pharaoh placed "taskmasters over them, and these appointed "officers" to execute their orders. These officers, it appears from the narrative, were Hebrews. Ex. v. 14. We read of "elders of Israel." Ex. iii. 16; but there is no evidence that any thing more is meant than the old men, who, out of respect to their age and experience, were consulted in regard to the important matter of leaving Egypt.

86. At a later day we find Moses sitting to judge the people, with no others to assist him in that department; and it was by the advice of his father-in-law, who was then on a visit to the Hebrew camp, that he changed this arrangement and appointed subordinate judges. Ex. xviii. 3. Of these there were four grades, judges of thousands, judges of hundreds, judges of fifties, and judges of tens. There was an appeal from the lower to the higher courts, the most difficult matters being brought to Moses and by him finally settled. Compare Deut. i. 15–17.

87. Still later, there were seventy elders chosen to assist Moses in the discharge of his duties. They appear to have occupied a middle rank between the judges before alluded to and Moses. The inference is, that the instances of appeal from the lower tribunals, were too frequent, to be attended to wholly by himself. The seventy elders would receive and decide all

such cases with or without the assistance of the Law giver. Some matters would of course remain for him to decide. Num. xi. 16-25.

88. When the march commenced from Sinai, after the numbering of the people, and the order of march was decided upon, each tribe had its leader. They are said to have been "princes of the tribes of their fathers, and heads of the thousands in Israel." Num. i. 5-16.

They may have been selected from among the judges over thousands, and others appointed to fill the vacancies thus occasioned, or they may have fulfilled their new functions in addition to the old.

89. The army had its officers, besides those already named, constituted, however, on a somewhat similar plan. Each thousand had its "captain," and each hundred. They are plainly distinguished from the civil officers, who are mentioned, in the preceding verse, as going out with Moses to meet them, after their return from battle, and here called "princes of the congregation." At the head of the army was the renowned Joshua, the son of Nun. The spoils of war were divided equally between the soldiers and the people; but the proportion of tribute, paid by each into the sacred treasury, was one portion in five hundred of the soldiers, and one portion in fifty of the people. Num. xxxi. 26-30; xxxi. 14.

Such was the condition of the government in the Wilderness; and though we are not furnished with the particular incidents of its operation, yet we must bear in mind that the record we have of those times is very brief and imperfect.

SECTION II.-RELIGION.

90. We read of priests in Egypt in the book of Genesis. We also read of priests among the Hebrews before any authorized priesthood was established among them. I infer that these priests were such as