use almost the same structures and words? Is there any difference between what I could write or say-perhaps as an expression of my mother tongue or the L, way of thinking-with what is actually conveyed? Is this difference merely a stylistic difference or is it due to interference problems? Or, more importantly, does this difference indicate some personal shortcoming in vocabulary and syntax? If so, what are the possible causes? Answers to such questions may provide valuable descriptions of the language, helpful in mastering vocabulary and structures. The teacher should see to it that the students acquire "the ability to infer the meanings of unknown words from the context instead of resorting to the dictionary," and the ability to discover the devices the writer has used to communicate effectively: appropriate choice of words, logical expressions used to link sentences, special, meaningful interactions of words and phrases, and "new uses of words and grammatical elements, as they occur in the text. The students should also develop the ability to: 2 a. discover how words and structures are used in several kinds of English: colloquial and standard speech, written and spoken language, polite and familiar terms, etc. b. discriminate between words of similar meaning, such as synonyms, cognate words, and "faux amis"3 c. discover possible interference from cross-cultural connotations of words d. discover common collocations, stereotyped expressions, and formulaic phrases e. infer the meanings of words by analyzing word stems. Identifying idiomatic expressions Students should be able to identify special uses of words and structures. The notion of "special" structures and expressions should be discussed not so much from the native speaker's point of view as from the foreign learner's perception of difficulty. Native speakers identify as special expressions mainly idiomatic expressions and stereotyped combinations of words. But other uses of words, which they consider normal and ordinary, may seem idiomatic or special to nonnatives: English structures that are different from those of the learners' mother tongue, different word order, formulaic phrases, and so on, constitute real points of difficulty for learners. In teaching and learning vocabulary we should focus our attention on these areas as well as on "idioms." 1. David Carver, p. 294. 2. Ibid, p. 295. 3. Faux amis (French)= false cognates (lit.. false friends). In order to assimilate words and their proper usage, students should, among other things: 1. Be on the lookout for: a. any "special" use or combination of words b. new words and/or new uses of words and expressions c. all devices used to link words in an acceptable flow of speech. 2. Constantly ask themselves such questions as: Why are words used as they are? What is special about their use as compared to common usage? What may be deceptive about given words as compared to their so-called equivalents in the L,? 3. Contrast or compare: a. some "surface" forms of words to other similar and/or different uses in English and find out what is systematic or regular in the uses of given expressions. b. some uses of words to those in the students' mother tongue. This can help to sort out problems of word order and grammatical and structural differences, and to determine semantic restrictions of words. 4. Follow these steps when they meet a new word or expression: a. Try to figure out or guess its meaning from context clues. b. Check its exact meaning in a good dictionary. c. Copy in a copybook the sentence or paragraph in which the word has been used, and read that sentence aloud as many times as necessary to memorize it. d. Make it their duty to incorporate the word (expression) into their own sentences or in sentences adapted from original sentences. In fact, "one of the best ways of expanding one's language competence is by using the words and expressions of a text in one's own answers, and, better still, in retelling the whole or part of the original." Any attempt to use the word without such preliminary study may result in unnatural, faulty sentences. SUCCESSFUL TECHNIQUES Now let me present some techniques we have used successfully to expand students' vocabulary. Practicing structurally similar expressions One technique is to practice sentences containing expressions that are structurally alike. The teacher can collect sentences containing various structures and expressions and then group these sentences according to 4. David Carver, op. cit. p. 295. their similarity. Then he can make up exercises based on such sentences and expressions: identifying similar structures and expressions; pattern drills of transformation, substitution, completion, and repetition; multiplechoice questions; building sentences on a given model by inserting new expressions." Practice on expressions that are structurally similar facilitates their retention, as memory seems to work well through association, repetition, and imitation. It is easier for a student to remember the correct use of expressions like in view of, in the hope of, on behalf of, by way of, resentful of, oblivious to, etc., if they are presented at the same time in meaningful sentences. The same holds true even for formulaic phrases and sentences that are structurally alike. The structural similarity of these expressions makes them easier to remember and use correctly. Some examples of exercises containing similar formulaic phrases and expressions: a. Identification of similar structures: Instructions: Part of sentence (1) below is underlined. Look at the following sentences and underline those parts of them that you think correspond grammatically or structurally to the underlined part of (1): Formulaic Phrases: 1. All languages, as is well known, carry a high degree of redundancy if spoken clearly and precisely. 2. They could shoot and kill him, that's for sure; but he couldn't be dying a better death. 3. My classroom window looks out-or should I say up into the street. 4. Interest, be it remembered, is contagious. Here the student would underline (2) that's for sure; (3) or should I say, and (4) be it remembered. Special Sentence Constructions: 1. Were he more ambitious, he would not remain an engine driver. 2. Try as I would, I could not detach my mind from the thought of Ruth's misdeed. 3. They said he had caused the fire in some way; be that as it may, he was screeching horribly. 4. Explain as I like, he could not understand. Similarly, the student would underline (2) try as I would, (3) be that as it may, and (4) Explain as I like. Prepositional Phrases: 1. In view of the facts, it seems useless to contin ue. 5. Cf. my monograph "Teaching English Idioms, Stereotyped Expressions and some Special Structures to Zairian Students." 2. Your story is admirable in respect to style but 3. She presented him with an account for all his Here, the expressions to be underlined are: (2) in respect to, (3) on behalf of, and (4) on a level with. b. Completion Exercises: Instructions: Put an x beside the suitable expression. In each case, there is just one expression that is most appropriate. Expressions of Quantity: When you ask Rover "Are you a good dog?" you don't expect a response other than a wag of the tail if he is content. a: a good many; b: a lot of; c: short of; d: much of The correct expression is (d) much of. Expressions of uncertainty and/or approximation: ...And they normally have a girl who starts the song and the drums pick it up and everybody joins in. a: sort of; b: as it were; c: so to speak; d: in other words The correct expression is (a) sort of. Such exercises have the advantage of developing the students' critical faculty, especially with regard to problems of word order and correct usage. They also enable them to discover "special" constructions and expressions as they read. Oral and written book reports Now I will present a technique I have been using in composition and conversation classes to teach vocabulary to advanced students." At the beginning of the term, I ask my students to read a book written in English. No two students should read the same book unless a different book is not available. At the end of the two or three weeks, every student is required to give an oral report on the contents of the book, consisting of a short summary of the story and a brief account of the style. More important than this, the students must give a written report consisting of a list of words, expressions, and structures (1) that they did not know before, (2) that they had never used before, and (3) that they find difficult to use in their own sentences. It is always advisable for them to write complete sentences in which they use those expressions. After this, students should 6. First-year graduate students in our teacher-training colleges (ISP). 7. In this instance, materials to be read may be novels, short stories. newspaper cuttings, autobiographies, etc. make an effort to deduce the meanings of difficult words from the context in which they are used. If they can't find the meanings, they had better look up the words in a good dictionary. The next step consists in "using the words and expressions of a text in their own answers (and sentences) or in retelling the whole or part of the original."8 In fact, not all words and expressions e.g., passive vocabulary-need to be practiced in this way. But at least for learning those expressions useful for everyday written and spoken English, this technique has proved to be by far the best." It should be noted here that students find it very difficult to build correct sentences with given words and expressions unless they base their sentences on given models. We should advise students to apply the principles of language analysis presented above, that is, they should examine the original sentences very critically. Only after this should they attempt to build their own sentences, following closely the structure of the model sentences. Now let me say a few words about oral reports given in class. After each student has given a brief summary of the book he has read, the teacher can help him speak about the style by asking him such questions as: What is your impression of the language used in the book? Did you find it difficult, easy, very interesting, idiomatic? Read some examples of sentences containing expressions you didn't know before. Read some sentences of your own in which you have inserted new words and expressions. To check whether a student has actually read the book, the teacher can ask him to open it at a certain page and read aloud a given paragraph. Then, he can ask him to use in his own sentences some of the expressions and structures in the paragraph. While the student answers all these questions, the rest of the class should follow, and the teacher can intervene mainly to explain and correct. Every student is responsible for everything presented in class; therefore, practice should follow every explanation of new words and expressions. From time to time, the class may be given a composition topic requiring them to use a number of words and expressions that have been presented in class. It is always advisable to have students keep special notebooks in which they can jot down all the sentences in their reading that contain useful idiomatic expressions and difficult structures, so that they can regularly practice them. They should make it their duty to insert these expressions in their own sentences, preferably on the models of sentences they have copied. At regular 8. David Carver, op. cit. p. 295. 9. Many examples of sentences containing such useful expressions can be found in my work “Teaching English Idioms, Stereotyped Expressions and some Special Structures." periods, the teacher may check the students' notebooks to see whether they have noted down all the difficult words met in their reading; he should also check their mastery of these words by asking them to use them in their own sentences. Such activities are really stimulating. They allow students to participate in the learning process and to feel responsible for the expansion of their language competence. In this way, they develop the habit of working by themselves. The importance of context So far I have mentioned only indirectly the importance of context in vocabulary learning, by insisting on keeping to model sentences to aid in correct usage. Now I will speak to this point directly. 10 We should always make sure that students can use the words they learn in acceptable contexts because "words come to life only when they are used in the situations representing the cultural ethos of the language under use. That is why, in order to check students' comprehension of words, it is better to ask them to use these words in various sentences than to limit ourselves to simple demonstrations, explanations, and translations of words. Illustrations of words in various sentences are more helpful to students than lexical explanations. Therefore, the best way of teaching new words is to put them into a variety of defining contexts. In this way, students can master various syntactic and semantic uses of words in authentic, correct English sentences. It is next to useless to drill students on mere lists of words and uncontextualized exercises if our main objective is to lead them gradually to mastery of vocabulary and correct usage. Unfortunately, some textbooks contain very few exercises on vocabulary and idioms." And some of those that do contain exercises such as “giving synonyms, antonyms, definitions of words," or "translating words into a given language," or "changing the meaning of a word by adding a prefix or a suffix" are of very little help, as they tend to be simply mechanical. On the other hand, exercises such as "Choose the correct expression among given ones to fit into given sentences (multiple-choice exercises)"; "Use a word in various sentences, illustrating its various meanings and grammatical functions"; "Use given words and expressions in a paragraph or in a composition"; "Correct these sentences, using proper expressions," and so on, are very helpful, as they are generally done in contexts. Moreover, such exercises have many other advantages: they sharpen students' minds and make them aware of 10. H.C. Trivedi, "Culture in Language Learning." p. 95. 11. E.g., Cartledge textbooks (used in Zairian secondary schools) contain only one type of vocabulary exercise in every lesson: "Use each of these words and expressions in a complete sentence." their own errors in the use of words; they help learners to discriminate between different meanings; and they facilitate the retention of expressions. They also help the teacher not only to test students' real comprehension of vocabulary but also to correct grammatical usage of new words and phrases. I don't mean to say that exercises in translation or in analyzing words according to morphemes to determine precise meanings are not useful. If, for instance, a passage contains a number of abstract nouns, translating them into the students' language saves valuable class time that can be used for practice. Indeed, explanation or translation of words can always be used as a means to an end. The aim or end here is to lead students "to use words in realistic situations, which is an end for the study of vocabulary." 12 It is evident that many words can be learned from the contexts in which they are used. This is especially true for native speakers who, in addition to being in permanent contact with their language and its culture, have generally developed many reading skills in the language. But for foreigners, it is not all that easy to infer meanings from contexts. They may be ignorant of the cultural, geographical, historical, social, and technical contexts that help the reader deduce the meanings of difficult words. They may be unacquainted with the (foreign) logical sequencing of ideas and with the structures that link sentences, so that they cannot concentrate at the same time on the meanings of difficult words and the sequence of ideas. I hope that detailed investigations of such important sources of difficulty will be carried out in order to facilitate the acquisition of English vocabulary by foreigners. Meanwhile, learners look to dictionaries for the solutions to their problems. Using dictionaries Foreign learners find dictionaries invaluable tools in learning vocabulary. They refer to them whenever they can't infer the meaning of a word from its context. They should, therefore, understand the different codes used in dictionaries, and they should make an effort to understand the relationship between the "definitions" or "meanings" and the exemplification. We can say that a student knows how to use a dictionary if, after looking up the meaning of a word, he uses the word correctly in realistic contexts. This implies that dictionaries for foreign learners should be usefully constructed, and take into account their special difficulties. Good dictionaries give various examples of the use of words in realistic and clear contexts; 13 they help students avoid potential errors, and they throw light on foreign learners' special 12. J.F. Green, "The Use of the Mother Tongue and the Teaching of Translation," p. 219. 13. E.g., A.S. Hornby's The Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English. difficulties. Some bilingual dictionaries are especially helpful in showing the student how to translate expressions and structures in his mother tongue into the language he is learning. But they do very little in the way of pointing out restrictions on the use of words closely related in meaning. Nevertheless, we should teach our students techniques for using bilingual as well as unilingual dictionaries. Some students may study vocabulary systematically from a good dictionary. Indeed, students should become great dictionary browsers, for there are many commonly used words besides those that we regularly come across in our reading-words whose meanings we tend to know only in certain narrow contexts. Regular browsing in dictionaries can be of great help in such cases. Some mnemonic devices One way to learn words is to memorize poems, pieces of dialogue, plays, and passages containing these words. This is something we can ask our students to do. Some other mnemonic devices are: analyzing word stems; rhyming words in little poems; introducing expressions to be learned in songs and/or plays. Students can write down difficult words and expressions they find, while browsing in dictionaries. They should try to visualize or draw pictures of these words. They can also read aloud sentences containing words for study. Students should develop a knack for new words. Whenever they come across them, instead of being frightened, they should revel in them, repeating them a number of times, singing them in little tunes, wondering at their marvelous melodious syllables, associating their sounds with natural sounds or with the sounds of other words, and learning their synonyms and antonyms (if any). OTHER PROBLEMS As I mentioned at the beginning, it seems as if at a certain stage, our students are at a standstill: they don't seem to progress in learning new words and expressions. This stage, or "plateau," can be conceived in terms of cultural dimensions: students seem to progress as long as they can identify their own culture with the L2 culture, in finding L2 equivalents of L, words and structures. Beyond this stage, however, they seem not to progress: new nuances and concepts escape them; particular foreign structures and ways of reasoning don't interest them or are difficult to acquire. That is why, as a solution to this problem, it is advisable at certain periods to teach students not only special structures in the L2 and some strategies for learning a foreign language, but also something of the culture and trends of thought of the L2. Language and culture Every language has its own way of expressing things according to its speakers' vision of the world. Every group of people can express humor, irony, joy, sorrow, etc., in their own way. The culture of the people who speak a language is reflected in that language: their vision of the world, their logic, their conception of things, their ways of reasoning. That is why word-for-word translation from one language to another often produces unnatural, clumsy sentences. Good translation takes into account the particular vision of life of the people speaking the language, and what those people would say in a given situation or context and/or in a particular register. These considerations have implications for language teaching and language learning. Unless we teach some aspects of the L2 culture, we can't teach the L2 well. Unless students are favorably disposed towards the people speaking the language they are learning, they can't learn that language well. “A language can't be well taught apart from the culture of which it is an expression."14 A number of difficulties that L2 learners have are due to their lack of ability to express their feelings and thoughts in the L2 as naturally as they can in their L1. We must realize that when we teach the L2 we don't teach merely an arbitrary succession of words. Rather, we teach words as they are combined to express various aspects of the L2 culture. Indeed, there are many aspects of world cultures that are similar. Nevertheless, many African students have great difficulty in expressing in English the images of their mother tongue, figures of speech, and humorous and ironic remarks. That is why some of them may find English an inadequate means of expression, and speaking English for a long time an unbearable task. Take, for instance, these various ways of greeting a person in Ciluba: Ányìshákú, Kólàkú, Móyó wèbè(áú), Móyóáú, Bètùábó, Wétùàú(a). These greetings express the ideas of strength, life, brotherhood. It would be quite wrong to pretend that they mean exactly the same thing as Good morning, Good afternoon, or Hello, which express the ideas of time, attention, etc. English greetings cannot express all the affective nuances so dear to Luba people in their own language. No wonder, then, that a Luba student speaking English may feel that there are certain things inadequately expressed in English, just as there are things that are not adequately expressed in Ciluba. In trying to fill this gap, he cannot translate these language forms literally, 15 lest he produce forms unacceptable in English. He should, rather, make an effort to accept the culture of the language he 14. C.H. Prator, “Adding a Second Language," p. 34. 15. Literal translation: "Accept then, Become strong. Your life (have that life), Take life. That's some of ours, That's one of ours." learns as it is. Studying L2 vocabulary involves, therefore, studying its cultural connotations and accepting them as they are. In teaching English, we should take into account possible cultural as well as linguistic difficulties that students may encounter. We should see to it that our students gradually develop an English “nativespeaker insight,"16 a faculty that can help them recognize and produce authentic pieces of the English language. We have said that learning a foreign language involves learning some aspects of the L2 culture. We should therefore be very careful when we speak about problems of vocabulary restriction. Does this mean limiting our students' knowledge of the world to the African milieu only? Surely not. Students feel a need to know about other cultures in order to keep abreast of world news, developments in science, and social, economic, and political problems all over the world. As a matter of fact, English is a language that represents most common widespread cultures of the world. Therefore, people who really like the L2 culture and who want to add some of its elements to their own culture to make it richer, tend to learn the L2 easily. Our students are in fact very interested in the English-speaking peoples' art forms and ways of life (music, literature, cinema, theater, clothing, etc.). They should therefore be interested in the English language as well. Further areas for study Many areas related to the acquisition of a foreign-language vocabulary remain to be investigated: contrastive analysis of cultural connotations of words and expressions (in the L, and L2) in semantic contexts; difficulties in the acquisition of foreign-language idioms and stereotyped expressions; in the acquisition of abstract terms and various concepts and nuances absent in the L1; in determining collocational restrictions and conceptual boundaries in the L2; in responding appropriately to various registers of the L2; in understanding many L2 realia unknown to L,; and, conversely, in finding appropriate terms to express L, realia in the L2. CONCLUSION A teacher who shares his students' native language is in a better position to understand easily the sorts of difficulties his students have in learning the language, since he has passed through the same stages of learning as they. He should therefore help learners surmount their difficulties by developing and using the same learning strategies as those he used himself when he was learning English. He should explain to them what they should do in order to develop a keen eye for new and/or difficult words, expressions, and structures and how to 16. Geoffrey Broughton, "Native Speaker Insight." |