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statement-that as regards the improvement of the forests it was immaterial whether the total area was 11,000,000 acres or more or less-is worthy of mention; since in his treatment of this matter he distinctly stated that Madras had a long uphill fight before them, that it would take years before even the suggested Reserves were demarcated, efficiently protected, and the growing stock improved, and that at the time it was impossible to say whether this area would suffice or not for the future requirements of a growing community. As regards the forests, to commence with he suggested the Bolampatti Forests in Coimbatore (to protect the water-supply of the Noyil River), the Reserves proposed to be formed on the Nilgiri Plateau, and areas in the Bellary District (for the production of fuel, charcoal for iron smelting and cattle fodder). The total area of what Brandis terms the "so-called " reserves in the Presidency on 1st January, 1882, was estimated at 756,568 acres. Much of this area had never been demarcated nor the rights enquired into. Brandis was therefore doubtful how much of the area could be declared reserved forest under section 25 of the new Act. The Settlement Officers should make careful enquiry into each case. It is of interest to compare this statement of the position with the rather grandiose list of first and second class forests published in Beddome's Manual of Forest Operations (vide Vol. II, p. 91). On the subject of Government lands which would not be included in the reserved forests Brandis considered that some protection should be given to them to prevent injudicious alienation and clauses with reference to the formation of "reserved lands" and "reserved trees were inserted into the Bill, but were excluded by the Government of India. Since from these lands it might be necessary to form additional Reserves in the future, Brandis suggested certain methods by which areas regarded as suitable might be placed safe from unconsidered alienation. As regards the question of reserved trees, he suggested that a few species, teak, sandal wood and red sanders would be sufficient for the present and that the large and varying numbers reserved in different districts (vide Cleghorn, Vol. I, p. 317) should be discontinued as vexatious and unnecessary. In any district where another species was valuable, such as, e.g. yepi (Hardwickia binata), in Bellary and Anantapur, it could be declared reserved. Rules should also be made under the Act to regulate or prohibit Kumri and the cutting and removal of forest produce, regulate sales, free grants of produce, etc. As regards grazing, Brandis' suggestions followed the usual lines of development and regulation in other forests of India.

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In his treatment of the revenue and extraction work of timber and firewood Brandis considers the whole question in detail. In a previous chapter (Vol. II, Chap. III) it has been shown that the question of the fuel supply and the formation of plantations were

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the chief questions at issue during 1864-70. Unequal treatment of the fuel charges was to be found throughout the Presidency, and the charges to the railway for fuel had fluctuated, whilst, with the admirable object of encouraging the growth of new industrial undertakings, fuel had been either granted them free or at low rates the natural consequence being that all adjacent areas were quickly cut out, inflicting grave hardship on the local population, whilst the industries themselves were threatened, at least with heavier transport charges for this requirement. Of course, in this matter the advent of the railways was, as Brandis puts it, a novel and unprecedented event.' The difficulty lay in the fact that it was still impossible to forecast their probable future requirements. Whilst the Southern Indian Railway took only small amounts of fuel, and might possibly be able to use coal alone in future, the Madras Railway, with an extending length of line, was requiring larger amounts of fuel. But in this case it could not be forecasted whether it would be cheaper for them in the future to use coal. As long as private forests existed sufficiently near to provide the requirements matters were easier, but these were being cut out with appalling celerity. It would be advisable to encourage the railway authorities to buy, so far as possible, from private forests, to give time for the efficient organization of the Government forests which would thereafter have to bear the brunt of the supply unless private proprietors could be induced to plant for this purpose.

The fuel requirements of large towns were still, in many cases, difficult of supply. The Casuarina Plantations on the east coast had proved a wonderful asset. But here again the cupidity of the merchant had made its appearance. It will be remembered that in order to encourage planting Government gave out the land on free leases. The practice had come about to take a lease, plant a crop, clear fell it within a few years, and then desert the area. Brandis pointed out that in forestry a crop usually took many years to mature, and this being the case a free lease of an area for planting purposes might be justified. But in the case of the very short rotation required for Casuarina, and in view of the growing practice of the grantees, in future a rent should be charged for all land taken up for the purpose on the east coast. At Ootacamund and elsewhere in the Presidency, advantage had not been taken of the Government's offer owing to the longer period the crops took to mature.

It is impossible to follow Brandis into his consideration of the iron ore industry in its effects on the forests. The industry was an important one in the Presidency, as is shown by the following statement which contains the crux of the matter: "One of the main objects of forestry in this Presidency must be the production of charcoal for iron smelting, and this can only be

effected by the formation and strict protection of reserved forests in the vicinity of those localities where iron is still made or where the conditions for making it are favourable.... The officers charged with the selection of the areas to be constituted reserved forests must pay attention to this matter, and an officer of the Geological Survey or a metallurgist with practical knowledge of iron-making should be associated with the Forest Officers in selecting the Reserves proposed to be formed for this purpose."

The section Brandis devotes to the consideration of the "Indirect Influence of Forests" is admirable, and is as valuable to-day as it was at the time it was written. In many parts of a country like India the value of the forest in its effect on water supplies is indisputable and had been recognized, as is exemplified by the following paragraph from the Report of the Indian Famine Commission. (1880: vide Vol. II, p. 459), quoted by Brandis: "As to the protection of the high hill slopes from denudation, it may be confidently stated that they will in any case be more useful if kept clothed with wood than subjected to the wasteful and destructive process by which they are brought under partial and temporary cultivation, and that, whether the expectation of an improved water-supply as a consequence of such protection is fully realized or not, there is, on other grounds, sufficient reason for arranging for the conservation of such tracts when it is practicable." Brandis suggested that a competent and experienced Engineer Officer should be attached. temporarily to the Madras Forest Department to study the question of the influence of forests on the increase or maintenance of water in the rivers and streams.

The Inspector-General's proposals for the reorganization of the Forest Staff were elaborate, but were long overdue in the Southern Presidency. He suggested the appointment of a second Conservator and the division of the Presidency into the two following Circles:

Northern Circle:-1. Ganjan.* 2. Vizagapatan.* 3. Godavari.* 4. Kistna. 5. Kurnool. 6. Nellore. 7. Bellary. 8. Anantapur. 9. Cuddapah. 10. South Kanara. II. Malabar. 12. Nilgiris.

Southern Circle:-13. Chingleput. 14. North Arcot. 15. South Arcot. 16. Salem. 17. Trichinopoly. 18. Tanjore. 19. Coimbatore. 20. Madura. 21. Tinnevelly.

Twenty-two Deputy and Assistant Conservators would be required in the Controlling Staff, and the salaries were increased to average those in the Provinces under the Government of India. Two Forest Settlement Officers would be required of the rank of Sub-Collector and their salaries would be charged to the " Forests." The existing staff of Forest Officers numbered fifteen. The permanent additions would be three officers from the Central Provinces, four recruits from England; the temporary ones, two civilians appointed as Forest Officers, one Engineer Officer: total, twenty-five officers.

*To form eventually a separate charge.

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Six extra Sub-assistant Conservators would be required. regards the subordinate staff, the details were greatly complicated by the inclusion of the Jungle Conservancy Forests with the Forests. Brandis' forecast of receipts and expenditure for the ensuing five years for the amalgamated forests under the Department was: Receipts, Rs.9,00,000. Expenditure-Conservancy and works, Rs.3,83,000; Establishments, permanent, Rs.4,76,000; Forest Settlement Officers, temporary, Rs.41,000: total, Rs.9,00,000, Brandis, however, thought that with expensive demarcation work in full swing the expenses would probably be heavier than his forecast-but he had his remedy. The Jungle Conservancy Fund being a local one, the surplus was carried forward from year to year. There was an outstanding balance in this fund of Rs.3,70,000. He suggested that this balance should be used to defray some of the capital expenditure of the work which had now to be undertaken by the Forest Department.

At this distance of time the other matters discussed with reference to the duties of the staff, organization of forest business, and so forth, need not be entered into.

Consideration of space render it impossible to deal with the progress made up to the end of the century on the lines. recommended above. Unquestionably the forestry position and atmosphere changed in the South and the Department worked hard to recover the time and position lost. The results achieved will be dealt with in a subsequent part. If revenue is, however, any criterion to sanity in forest management the following figures speak for themselves :

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At the close of the century the total area of forests under the Department amounted to 19,649 square miles, of which 15,862 square miles were Reserved forest and 3787 square miles of what were known in Madras as "Reserved Lands"; in all 13.9 per cent of the Presidency.

Of this area 2536 square miles only were under sanctioned. Working Plans or plans were under preparation.

MYSORE

The distribution of the forests in Mysore has been described in earlier parts of this history. The Forest Rules came into

force in February, 1869. One of the most valuable timbers in the State was the sandal wood, which was a Government monopoly, and the annual revenue realized in 1870-1 was about Rs.1,60,000. In this year the Chief Commissioner of Mysore proposed to the Government of India, in order to stop the waste of timber taking place, that as all the forests of the country were public property they should be placed under the charge of Forest Officers, a number of depots being established throughout the country, where wood would be sold to allcomers. Extensive plantations were also to be formed. The Mysore Railway was to run from Bangalore to Mysore. "Its sleepers (of teak and blackwood) will be provided from the local forests of Ashtagram and Nandidrup Divisions. Teak for carriage building will come chiefly from Nagar" (Rev. of For. Adminstr. by Inspector-General, 1870-1).

The "district" system of forests was sanctioned on 12th March, 1872. Its main object was to abolish the system of licences and introduce a system of proper selection and felling of trees. The new departure was much opposed, but Van Someren, the Conservator, appears to have exercised tact and to have taken pains to explain to the people the objects of the new departure. All forests were placed under the Department and divided into " circles of supply," each in charge of a Forest Officer and with one or more depots. The revenue in Mysore in 1873-4 was just short of 5 lakhs of rupees and the expenditure Rs.1,12,460.

From the Government of India's remarks on the administration of the forests in 1876 progress appears to have been slow. Only 449 square miles of State Forest existed and the "District" forests in some parts of the country would not be able to continuously supply the wants of the people. Many of the forest areas were so small that their management could never be profitable. True protection was in its infancy and the Government of India suggested that Van Someren should visit the Central Provinces and study their methods.

The value of sandal wood sold in 1878-9 in Mysore was Rs.3,65,188 out of a total revenue for the year of Rs.4,52,575. This wood was a wonderful asset but an equal danger as it in fact delayed real forest progress to some extent. In 1879-80 sandal wood produced Rs.4,34,712 out of a total revenue of Rs.5,43,312.

Subsequent to this year the Mysore Forest Department was

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