criticizing Mr. Mann's views on a professional point, but "he must express his doubt of the good effect of the pruning which Mr. Mann advocates. He cannot but think that it would be better to permit the growth to proceed until the branches meet, and to trust to the upward growth taking place after that period. When the trees are sufficiently close to one another, the growth upward must come soon in the struggle for light." Keatinge appears to have possessed some knowledge of forestry. It is interesting to compare his remarks with those of Lord Tweedale made in 1846 on the Nilambur Teak Plantations in Madras (cf. Vol. I, p. 97). The "Kulsi teak borer," as it came to be called, had become recognized as a source of danger, its grub travelling up the stem and killing the young trees. Aylmer had not yet discovered the mature beetle, however, in spite of careful research. The sissu plantations were doing well and a large nursery had been prepared for tun (Cedrela Toona) which was to be planted in mixture with the teak. It was also intended to plant nahor (Mesua ferrea) instead of sam with teak in future. There were also 35 acres of rubber plantations at Kulsi, whilst another 30 acres of ground had been prepared during the year. The total sum expended on this area worked out Rs.15.2.1 per acre, including formation of nursery and purchase of suitable cuttings, which were difficult to get.

The Charduar Rubber Plantations were started in 1874 by the preparation of a large nursery in which cuttings were laid down and seed also sown in April, 1874. Artificial shade had been left over the nursery as a precaution. A year's experience showed this to be a mistake as the heavy drip caused the death of large numbers of cuttings and seedlings. The seed germinated best on broken brick, next on broken charcoal and least on the earth. Eventually broken charcoal proved the best germinating bed. Four hundred seedlings had been brought in by Miris from the Akha Hills to the north and were planted in the nursery. No seedlings were present in the dense evergreen forests at the foot of the hills, where sufficient light was absent, but it was recognized that the seed would readily germinate on steep hill-sides where more light was available; they also germinated readily on the well-cultivated land in tea gardens. The best time for making the cuttings was between the middle of January to end of May. In 1875 there were 16,401 cuttings alive out of 21,213 put down. In 1873-4 the plantations of rubber extended to 180 acres. During 1874-5 another 140

acres were got ready, whilst a further 60 acres were being cleared. The method of planting adopted was to clear lines at 20 feet apart. The width of the lines proved insufficient as soon as the monsoon set in, owing to the excessive shade and drip, and plants died. The lines were therefore opened to 40 feet width, and the effect on the young plants was said to be remarkable. The only drawback to the increased width was the increased cost of the operations and the difficulty of getting labour, which, owing to the wages offered by the tea gardens, was a growing one. The experiment was therefore started of planting young seedling plants in strongly made baskets and placing them in the forks of trees. This method of planting would only necessitate a small bridle-path being opened out through the forest. Mann did not advocate the system if labour was procurable as inspection and protection would be very much more difficult. An expenditure of Rs.2-4-0 per acre had been incurred for planting the 180 acres, but a subsequent charge was incurred for opening the lines to double their width. The total cost of the plantation to end of 1874-5, including all charges and salaries, came to Rs.13-1 per acre. It was estimated that this charge should come down to Rs.10 per acre. Mann had suggested the reservation of an area of 140 square miles in the Charduar north of Tezpur for rubber plantations; this matter had not yet been decided.

As regards Shillong, the summer hill station of Assam in the Khasi Hills, an area of 580 acres was leased in the year 1871-2 at the rent of Rs.50 per annum for the purpose of forming timber plantations in the vicinity of the station, the Government having the warning of the timber and fuel difficulties of Simla, Ootacamund and other stations in the hills before then. In the year 1873-4 an orchard of about 5 acres was bought by the Forest Department. The timber plantation land was demarcated and remained in charge of the Deputy Commissioner. About 50 acres of this land was covered with Pinus Khasya, which it was intended to preserve. All the rest was to be planted and sown, partly with P. Khasya and partly with evergreens and exotic broad-leaved trees. A nursery of 1 acre was prepared during 1874-5 and the seeds of a variety of species, received from the Conservator of Bengal and collected by the Department in the hills, were sown. A considerable number of seedlings of oaks, chestnut, walnut, several species of Eucalyptus, Casuarina, various European

pines, W. Himalayan conifers, Wellingtonia and Cryptomeria were raised and some planted out. It was too soon to express an opinion as to the results. The Cinchona Plantations, thirteen in number, were inspected by Mann (who it will be remembered started his connection with India in the Sikkim Cinchona Gardens) and reported as doing well.

In that fascinating volume (in spite of its austere official title) the "Report on the Administration of the Province of Assam" for the years 1874-5 and 1875-6, the first to be compiled for the Province since it was constituted a separate Chief Commissionership, under the Section on "Forests," some interesting remarks by the Chief Commissioner are to be found: The forests of the Garo Hills, which were subject to extensive jhuming by the Garos, were inspected in 1876 and were found to contain but a small proportion of sâl and valuable timber trees. As it was not considered advisable to interfere with the jhuming at the time, no reserves were to be formed, and the forests were left under the management of the Deputy Commissioner. Of the total area of Reserves constituted in 1875-6, 348 square miles were added in the Eastern Duars of the Goalpara District. It had been formerly gazetted as

"

The

open forest." A large proportion of it was sâl forest which had been depleted to furnish the great timber markets of Bengal. In the Sidli Duar very valuable forests were also surveyed during the year, but as there were many villages and cultivated lands scattered through them they had remained "open forests." question of declaring them Reserves was under consideration. The Garumari Sâl Forest in the Darrang District, the eastern limit of the sâl tree, 205 acres in extent, was declared a Reserve, as also the Bhamaraguri Hill Forest in the same district, 387 acres. This forest had been purchased some years ago with a view to supplying fuel for the Government steamers. During the same year the Charduar Rubber Plantation Reserve was sanctioned. Of this Reserve 34 square miles were placed under the Forest Department, and the remainder, 45 square miles, was under the management of the Deputy Commissioner, subject to inspection by the Forest Officers. No steps had as yet been taken towards forming Reserves in the Cachar and Sylhet Forests.

The important work connected with the determination of the actual growing stock present in the forests had been commenced during the year, valuation surveys having been made in the Kholahat, Deboka, Balipara and Sidli Forests.

Fire protection, considered so important for the sâl forests, had not been so successful during 1875-6 owing to the exceptional drought and very high winds. Early in 1874-5 measures had been taken to put a stop to the indiscriminate burning of the forests in the Khasi and Jaintia Hills and the Seims," and Village Officers were made responsible for the conservancy of the sacred groves. These measures had met with some success, but, as Colonel Keatinge says, “it is a very difficult thing to change the habits of a population, or to induce them to incur even a very small temporary inconvenience for a future benefit." The realization of the true objects of Forest Conservancy could only come slowly through the education of the people. This has been as true in Europe as in India. That they can be assimilated both Europe and India bear witness.

The plantation work was progressing favourably save at Shillong, where the only exotics which showed promise were Juglans regia, Eucalyptus rostrata and Pinus maritima. The bark of the cinchona trees from the Assam Plantations had been submitted to the Government Quinologist at Darjiling, who had reported unfavourably on it. The plantations were made over to the Seim of Nongklao during the year.

With reference to the large tracts of forests which remained under the charge of the Deputy Commissioners, whose boundaries were undefined, the Chief Commissioner says that, although not gazetted as open forests under the Forest Act VII of 1865 (which was in operation in Assam), they were in every way watched over as strictly as if they had been so gazetted. Rules had been made by the Chief Commissioner for these areas which were designed in great measure to check jhuming operations, and the mouzadars were the persons immediately responsible for the conservancy of the forests, and failure in this respect would be met by dismissal. The Chief Commissioner had also particularly impressed upon the Deputy Commissioners the importance which he attached to the management of this portion of their charges. Rules had been drawn up for the felling of tax-paying timber, and the general principles on which applications for timber-bearing lands were to be treated had been laid down by the Chief Commissioner. The proposals for the revision of taxes were still under consideration. The quantity of timber removed from the forests during the two years 1874-6 was-by departmental agency, 2753 logs and pieces, approximately 41,239 cubic feet, and by pur

chasers, 40,869 logs and pieces, cubic contents unknown. The total receipts for the years 1874-5 and 1875-6 were Rs.64,749 and Rs.61,872 respectively, the expenses for the two years being Rs.59,523 and Rs.61,884.

"The Forest Department," said the Chief Commissioner, "is still in its infancy; but in reviewing its operations for the last two years he was able to say that much has been accomplished. The forest establishments at his command were too small for the management of extensive tracts. But the Reserves under the direct control of the Forest Officers were schools where much could be taught and learned. He aimed at something more than the conservancy of a few Forest Reserves. He aimed at the protection from fire and jhuming of some 15,000 square miles of forest-forest that, from its geographical position, should, in days to come, supply the timber of nearly all Eastern Bengal and yield a large amount of revenue to the Province."

These were expressions of opinion of a far-sighted man, and, in all his actions, Colonel Keatinge showed not only that he was thoroughly alive to the value of Forest Conservancy in his Province, but also that he understood the aims and objects of such conservancy; whilst he realized, as a Frontier Political Officer with savage tribes to deal with, some of whose chief methods of amusement and excitement were head-hunting and raiding amongst their neighbours, that its introduction must be undertaken with skill and caution.

His proposals for settling the rubber question by a draft Regulation declaring the right of Government to all rubber, home-grown or imported, and imposing a penalty on the collection or purchase of rubber without a licence, or sale by the latter save to the persons mentioned in the licence, thus creating a strict Government monopoly, were not accepted by the Government of India, who declined to impose any special restrictions on the rubber trade. A considerable revenue was thus lost to the Government for a certain number of years. But, in any event, the wild rubber trees of Assam had suffered too heavily and were doomed to disappear. The neglect had lasted too long. But it is curious that the Government of India should not have accepted the proposal of the Officer on the spot, and especially when, in their Chief Commissioner, they had a man thoroughly acquainted both with the forests, the rubber question and the people over whom he ruled.

During the next decade forest organization proceeded but