king in the interest of the priesthood that controlled his conscience. By his unpatriotic act of recognizing as his successor a Norman ally of the Pope, he brought upon England the great calamity of the Norman Invasion.

The Emperor as Protector.

59. From the time of Otho the Great, the German emperors became protectors of civil order in Italy, and exercised the right of appointing the Popes, or at least of making their own consent essential to the papal election. This state of things lasted till about the middle of the eleventh century (1048).

a. The sovereign who best represents this period is HENRY III. (1038-1056), — valiant, wise, and noble, whose reign was, however, disturbed by border wars, and darkened by anxieties and disasters which shortened his life. He left at his death a child of six, HENRY IV., who for the next fifty years illustrated all phases of the violent conflict that now ensued between the Papacy and the Empire (ii. 58, 69-72).

b. The position of the Emperor as protector brought the question of Lay Investiture (§ 54. a) into a new form, leading to a more obstinate struggle. The exercise of this power was no longer a usurpation, but a duty and a right. And it was gratefully accepted by the Church, when (1046) Henry III. was called in to put an end to the confusion resulting from the conflict of title among three, who on different grounds claimed the office of pope (ii. 57, 58). By his decision, Gregory VI. (who had bought the holy office) was compelled to abdicate, while his two rivals were contemptuously set aside.

Hildebrand.

60. The most eminent champion of the independence of the Church at this period, the restorer and upholder of the Decretal System, and the founder of papal authority as it came afterwards to prevail,

§ 60.- Hildebrand.

71

was the monk HILDEBRAND, later known as Pope GREGORY VII.

a. HILDEBRAND (a carpenter's son of Saona in Tuscany) had been secretary and friend of the deposed Gregory VI., whom he accompanied into France. On the appointment of the monk Bruno as pope (LEO IX.) by Henry III. in 1048, Hildebrand sustained him in demanding election by the clergy, and became then chief counsellor, or chancellor, of Leo and his four successors; then (1073-1085), as GREGORY VII., sustained the struggle against the Emperor with great intrepidity and firmness, till his death, in defeat and exile, at Salerno. The submission of Henry IV. at Canossa (1076) is the most striking incident of this conflict. (For the circumstances of this strug

gle, see ii. 61-63, 67-70.)

b. Besides renewing the controversy of Lay Investiture, the work of Hildebrand was to restore canonical discipline in the morals of the clergy, and, in particular, to enforce the rule of clerical celibacy (ii. 63–67). This policy was carried out with extreme and unrelenting cruelty, and at cost of a war, or crusade, in Northern Italy, in which the ancient privileges of that region (§ 32. a) were ferociously trampled down, under Pope Alexander II. (1065).

c. The two chief objects of the Hildebrandine policy — independence of secular power in elections, and discipline of the clergy were established at a Council in Rome in 1059. Canonical marriage is so rigidly defined by this Council, “that no man shall marry a wife of his kindred, within the seventh generation, or as far as consanguinity can be traced (Can. xi. ; ii. 63). Of this period, Damian says that "the whole world is nothing but gluttony, avarice, and lust.” Damian (d. 1072), the pope's adviser, a man of harsh; austere, and even morbid temper, and a fanatic in his monastic zeal, may be regarded as the head of the disciplinarians, as Hildebrand was that of the politicians, who aimed at the regeneration of the Church.

d. Incidental to the policy of Hildebrand was his zeal to set on foot a crusade for the deliverance of Palestine (ii. 72); and his commission was expressly given (id. 68, 79) to William the Norman for the conquest of England as a holy war. This com

mission was accompanied by a consecrated banner, and a ring enclosing a hair of the Apostle Peter. The religious pretext for the Conquest was that the Saxon lords had displaced from the archbishopric and banished a Norman priest appointed by Edward the Confessor (§ 58. d).

e. In the time of Leo IX. (about 1050) arose the Berengarian Controversy respecting the Real Presence (§ 51. a), which was determined by authority in 1079 (ii. 190, 211), when Berengar was compelled to confess under oath "that the bread and wine upon the altar are after their consecration not a sacrament only, but the true body and blood of our Lord Jesus Christ, which

not as sacrament only, but in truth-are handled and broken by the hands of priests and bruised by the teeth of the faithful." Gregory, however, refused (when urged) to persecute Berengar on his recanting this confession, saying that error should be fought only by "the weapons of charity and truth " (ii. 159).

CHAPTER VI.

GREAT AGE OF THE PAPACY.

TO THE JUBILEE OF BONIFACE VIII., A. D. 1300.

War of Investitures.

61. THE controversy respecting Lay Investiture led to a struggle lasting nearly fifty years and involving obstinate war, waged by Gregory VII. and his successors against Henry IV. of Germany, and afterwards his son Henry V., till it was compromised by the Concordat of Worms, A. D. 1122.

a. After the humiliation of Henry IV. at Canossa, he had recovered his power, and driven Gregory from Rome, to die in exile (ii. 70, 71). But he was weakened by the rebellion of his sons Conrad and Henry (who one after the other sided with the pope), and perished in want and misery (1106).

b. At his father's death Henry V. turned against the Pope (PASCAL II.), who was taken prisoner, and compelled to concede "to his dearest son, King Henry," all the imperial rights, including the appointment of bishops and abbots (1111). This concession, however, was revoked the next year, as "not a privilege but a pravi-lege, extorted by the violence of King Henry." At Worms, in 1222, a compromise was agreed upon between the emperor and Calixtus II., by which the prince might bestow the sceptre, or staff of temporal authority; but the crosier and ring, signs of spiritual union and trust, must be bestowed by the Church.

c. The First Lateran Council (1123),1 besides confirming the Concordat of Worms, declared "remission of sins" to the Crusaders, with assurance of protection to their goods and families. It also denounced anathema against violators of the Truce of God (ii. 41, 97), and against the despoiling of Pilgrims. Later popes, however, declared that the Concordat was only a personal agreement between Calixtus and Henry, and refused to be bound by its terms (ii. 72, 73).

The Crusades.

62. The CRUSADES were a series of religious wars waged by the sanction of successive popes, and extending over a period of about two hundred years (1095-1291), for the rescue of Palestine from its Mahometan conquerors, the Saracens ; 2 or, in the phrase of the time, to deliver the Holy Sepulchre from the hands of Infidels.

a. The First Crusade, led by the hero GODFREY, captured the city of Jerusalem by assault, in July, 1099, and established a Christian kingdom in Palestine, which lasted till Jerusalem was retaken by the Saracens under Saladin, in 1187.

b. A crusade for the deliverance of Palestine had been urged as a pious duty about a hundred years before, by Sylvester II. (§ 56. c), and further pressed by Hildebrand (§ 60. d). The theory of universal dominion, moreover, asserted by the Church, implied the right, or duty, of universal conquest (ii. 79, 80).

c. The imagination and sympathy of Christian nations had been also appealed to by Peter the Hermit, who stirred a great passion of popular enthusiasm (ii. 92); and, near the same time, the Greek emperor Alexis, in despair of his dominion, entreated, in an eloquent address, the aid of Western powers (id. 93). The pope, Urban II., a zealous disciple of Hilde"parish

1 The Lateran Church of St. John the Baptist is the Pope's own church" in Rome. Here a series of four Councils were held.

2 The name "Crusade" is taken from the figure of the Cross (crux) which was marked on the armor and banners of the Crusaders.