§ 54.-Feudalizing of the Church.

65

thence resulting are known by the general name of FEUDALISM.

a. The establishment of petty local sovereignties, each with its independent jurisdiction, was hastened not only by the subdividing of each kingdom among several heirs, but by barbaric invasions, which now began to be renewed, — in particular of Italy by the Saracens, of Northwestern France by the Northmen, or Normans, and soon after (about 900) of Central Europe by the Huns. The numerous invasions compelled the policy of individual resistance (compare i. 239, 246; ii. 30).

b. The features of Feudalism most important to Christian history at this period are: 1. Its hereditary principle, going to the creation of powerful families, with pride of rank and spirit of caste (ii. 33-37); 2. Its temper of extreme haughtiness, cruelty, and class hatred, with inordinate craving for wealth and power. In both these ways it was strongly opposed to the ideal and professions of the Church. (For illustrations of these moral contrasts between Feudalism and the Church, see ii. 40-51.)

Feudalizing of the Church.

54. The Feudal Revolution affected the Church chiefly in two ways: directly, by putting those offices of the Church which involved tasks of administration in the gift of local sovereigns; indirectly, by making the church officials subordinate feudal chiefs, with the lawlessness, the violence, and the ambition of the secular powers.

a. The authority claimed by sovereigns to bestow the offices of the Church is called the right of LAY INVESTITURE. It was probably essential at a time when ecclesiastical office as of a Bishop-often required tasks of political government (such as taxation and military defence) as well as church administration (ii. 67, 68). It led, in course of time, to what is known as the Controversy of Investitures, and to a violent struggle which

was compromised in the "Concordat of Worms" in 1122, but which has often been renewed, down to the present day.1

b. The moral effects of this revolution upon the clergy were extremely corrupting, blotting out for a time all memory of a different spirit and aim in the Church, and threatening to convert the clergy into a profligate political order, with the privileges and immunities of an hereditary sacred caste. (For illustrations, see ii. 52, 55, 56.)

c. It was against these two dangers · political subjugation and moral degradation (ii. 21-23) · that the churchmen of the ninth century had sought defence in the Decretal System, forging such additions as seemed then essential to their object. Their scheme proved impotent for the time; but it was by appealing to this system, and even by availing himself of these forgeries, that Hildebrand (§ 60) at length effected the independence and partial reformation of the Church.

NOTE. The period of Feudal degradation in the Church may be reckoned as having lasted, with a few short intervals, for about a century and a half, — from the end of the ninth century to the middle of the eleventh.

Degradation of the Papacy.

55. Early in the tenth century the Papacy came under the control of Italian princes (the Counts of Tusculum), and there ensued a period of extreme corruption in the government of the Church, which is sometimes known as the “Pornocracy," that is, the Reign of Harlots.

a. At this time Italy was already known as a country of Free Cities (ii. 259), which were more or less under the control of a feudal nobility. The last of the abler and better popes of the ninth century was Stephen VI. (885-891); and a few years later (in 905) the Papacy was occupied by an Italian noble known as Sergius III.

1 As, for example, in the "Concordat of 1801," after the first French Revolution (§ 134), and in the "May Laws" under the present German Empire (§ 144. b).

b. For more than fifty years (till 963) the Papacy exhibited the disorders and immoralities of a secular court.1 It was, in particular, long controlled by a woman of great ability and ambition, named Theodora, with her two daughters, Marozia and Theodora. All three established their own sons in the Papacy; one of whom, JOHN X., proved a vigorous and able ruler, especially in the defence of Italy against the Saracens. In short, the Papacy is at this period to be judged purely as a secular principality (see ii. 52).

The Saxon House.

56. During the latter half of the tenth century the dignity of the Church was in part restored by the German emperors OTHO (or OTTO) I., II., and III., of the House of Saxony. They held Italy and the Papacy in firm control, and were protectors of morality and civil order.

a. HENRY I. ("the Fowler "), first of the German emperors, had established his power by victories over a terrible invasion of the Huns (924-933), who remained masters of Hungary. His son OTHO (or OTTO "the Great": 936-973) came into Italy in 951, summoned by the widowed princess Adelaide, who had been despoiled and imprisoned, whom he rescued and afterwards married. As regent for her son and grandson, she afterwards proved herself one of the noblest of female sovereigns. Returning to Italy in 962, Otho was crowned emperor, and the title "Holy Roman Empire was first officially bestowed. Deposing the unworthy Pope JOHN XII. (grandson of Marozia), Otho now settled by a compact (pactum Ottonis) the mutual relations of the Empire and the Papacy (963).

b. OTHO III. (983-1002) succeeded as a child to the short reign of his father. He grew to be a youth of fervid imagination and great promise; visited the tomb of Charlemagne, where he crowned himself with that monarch's crown,2 and

1 Like that of Charles II., in England, for example.

2 The body of the great emperor was found still seated in his gilded chair of state, as he had been buried, with crown and sceptre, and a copy of the Gospels upon his knee.

devoted himself to the work of restoring the Empire to its glory, with Rome for the capital of the world. He died, however, at twenty-four, either of fever, or (it was said) poisoned by the widow of Crescentius, who had established himself in power at Rome, and whom he had put to death.

c. Among the acts of the last Otho was appointing as Pope his former instructor, Gerbert (SYLVESTER II.), who had been trained in the learning of the famous Saracen school at Cordova (§ 43. c), and in an age of deep ignorance was popularly thought to be a magician. During his papacy (999–1003) there prevailed a superstitious terror at the approaching end of the world, — which it was believed by many would be at the end of a thousand years of the Christian era.1 As this crisis passed, it is thought that a marked revival of courage and hope took place throughout Christendom (ii. 56, 225).

Anglo-Saxon Church.

The annals of the English Church, during the disorders of the Feudal period, are illustrated by the names of the hero-king ALFRED, and of DUNSTAN, a monk of genius, ability, and political craft, who attempted a monastic reform in that Church.

a. The work of ALFRED (871-901), after he had delivered England from the terror of Danish invasion, may be compared to that of Charlemagne, in the encouragement given to learning, civilizing arts, and religious education among the people. He was piously instructed by his mother, and employed himself in the composing or translating of religious books. He is generally honored as the purest example of a patriotic and Christian king.

b. Disorders were renewed during the short and disturbed reigns of Alfred's later successors; and it is probable that the English clergy, though near in sympathy to the people, were as corrupt as elsewhere, and still more ignorant and gross.

1 The extent and effects of this belief have been greatly exaggerated by several historians. The "legend" is fully discussed in the Revue Politique, etc., for March, 1878.

§ 58.-Saintly Kings.

69

DUNSTAN (925-988), who had at once the genius of an artist and the fervor of a monk, attempted a reform on the strict monastic model, in which he partly succeeded. But he came into violent hostility with the Saxon kings, especially Edwy, whom he regarded as a lewd and insolent boy. He has fallen under the scorn of historians, and was long chiefly known by grotesque legends, which made him out at best a crazy fanatic.1

Saintly Kings.

58. Among the moral disorders of the Feudal period appear the names of four monarchs eminent for piety and virtue, who are recorded in the calendar as Saints. These are ROBERT of France, STEPHEN of Hungary, HENRY II. of Germany, and EDWARD (the Confessor) of England.

a. The character and career of ROBERT (996-1031) belong to the history of France,2 and serve here only as an example of this remarkable feature of the time.

b. After the victories of Henry the Fowler and Otho, the Huns, or Hungarians, becoming settled, were quickly converted. Their first Christian king was STEPHEN (997–1036), who labored to bring the spirit and institutions of his country into harmony with Christian civilization, and especially with the newly reformed administration of Rome.

C. HENRY II., who succeeded the last Otho (1003-1024), was desirous to abjure the crown and become a monk. When he professed obedience, by the monkish vow, he was commanded by his superior to serve by assuming the charge and duties of a king. His reign was devoted to the interest of justice and good order, as well as of the Church; but he is considered to have done injury by excessive deference to church authority.

d. EDWARD the Confessor (1042-1066), though justly called a saint for his gentler virtues, forfeited his dignity and duty as

1 His true character is given in Green's "History of the English People." 2 See, especially, Michelet's "History of France."