brance of their ancestors, whom Trajan brought from Italy and other parts of the empire to repeople Dacia, after the dispersion of the native race, and gave their country the name of the Roman Land (Tsara Romanesca). The learned men called it Roumania. The name of Wallachs is borrowed from the Sclavic idiom, which by a process of assimilation common enough among these peoples, translated the word Roman (papaios, strong, or powerful), by Vlak, or Vloky, signifying the same thing in their language, just as they transformed theology into begoslovia (discourse on God), geography into zembliopissania (description of the earth), Lætitia or Euphrosyne into Rada (joy), and Theodore into Bogdan (present of God), &c. The Bulgarians, who were the first to arrive from the banks of the Volga, at that portion of the country some called Bulgaria, gave this title to the Roman farmers and shepherds with whom they came in contact. The same title, adopted by all the Sclavonic races, Russians, Poles, Croats, Bohemians, &c., who applied it indifferently to the old Romans and the modern Latin tribes, became the origin of the name of Vlachs or Wallachs, which has since been restricted to the most considerable portion of the inhabitants of Wallachia. But, if Roumania is uniform in language, religion, manners, and geography, it is politically divided into three portions, to only one of which we shall refer in our present paper-namely, Turkish Roumania, better known as the Danubian Principalities.

The total amount of land known as Moldo-Wallachia, comprising the isles of the Danube, is estimated at 5727 square leagues, of which 3820 belong to Wallachia, and 1907 to Moldavia. Wallachia is divided into two parts, which are separated by the course of the Olto: Great Wallachia to the east, Little Wallachia to the west. In the same way Moldavia is divided into the high and low country. The Moldavian territory extends within about 70 deg. of longitude and 35 deg. of latitude. The frontiers of Russia and Austria, on either side, run along the greater portion of its circumference, the Wallachian frontier occupying about thirty leagues. The Danubian frontier, on the side of Turkey, does not exceed four leagues. The climate of Moldo-Wallachia comprises the most opposite extremes. In winter you find the cold of Moscow, in summer the heat of Greece. Properly speaking, there are only two seasons, rapidly following each other. The winter lasts about five months, from November to the end of April. During the four first months the country is almost entirely covered with snow, and sledges are in general use. There are, however, few countries in Europe so well favoured by nature. After leaving the vast and fertile plains to which the Danube serves as a girdle, you enter on the Carpathian side-magnificent pasturages, forests admirably adapted for constructing purposes, and mountains of pure rock-salt, which have never yet been worked. The general scenery is of the most charming character. In this country, plains, woodlands, and forests are collected to form one enchanting landscape. All the productions of Europe may be found there: the olive and the orange are the only European trees which are not favoured by the soil and climate. The numerous vineyards supply an excellent sort of wine, which only requires care to become a worthy rival of the best French sorts. There are no sterile tracts of country to be found. The rivers bring down nuggets of gold torn from the sides of the mountains. These same mountains

contain, at the same time, unexplored mines of quicksilver, iron, copper, bitumen, sulphur, coal, &c. Wax, honey, tobacco, butter, cheese, leather, silk, cattle, game, &c. &c., add to the natural abundance of these countries. All descriptions of cereals abound there, and there is no need of artificial means to increase their productiveness. Corn, for instance, yields a crop of sixteen to twenty-five fold; barley, thirty; Indian corn, three hundred. You find in this country entire forests of fruit-trees, such as pears, apricots, and cherries. The greater portion of the mountains resembles the finest of our market-gardens in the variety and richness of the crops.

In the Principalities there are about 3,700,000 hectares cultivated, whose annual produce is estimated at 3500l. This is about one twenty-fourth the value of land in England. The greater proportion of the crops is in cereals. It has been estimated during the last few years at

To this amount we must add 800,000 hectolitres of potatoes. The latter article of produce has been introduced only very recently into Moldavia, and is almost unknown in Wallachia. Out of this amount, the Principalities export annually nearly 4,000,000 hectolitres of grain, representing an approximative value of 1,250,000l. The other branches of export probably amount to two and a half millions, chiefly in the shape of cattle, horses, sheep, skins, wine, &c. The imports exceed two millions, onethird of which may be referred to Moldavia, and two-thirds to Wallachia. In 1832 the two Principalities contained a population of 3,299,362-as: Wallachia. 2,032,362 souls Moldavia. 1,267,000

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In 1838 the Wallachian government ordered a fresh census, which furnished 413,000 families, which, at five persons a family, would produce a total of 2,065,000 inhabitants. But this census only took into account the tax-paying classes, omitting all those who were free, such as the boyards, the religious orders, serfs belonging to private persons, whose number could not be estimated at less than 170,000; so that the population at that period must have amounted to 2,235,000 souls. In the same year, Moldavia had 1,419,000 inhabitants, which gives about 3,660,000 for the united Principalities. At the present day this population, owing to the gradual increase since 1839, may be estimated at four millions, of whom 2,500,000 are Wallachian, and 1,500,000 Moldavian. The population of the Principalities is ethnographically divided into two great classes, the Rouman, or native race, and the immigrant races. The first, which originated with a mixture of the ancient Dacians, and the numerous Roman colonists whom Trajan settled in this country, form about nine-tenths of the whole population. The Roumans, who are tall, stout, handsome, and intelligent, with their quaint costume, which we might fancy was borrowed from Trajan's column, remind us irresistibly of the haughty warriors from whom they are descended. But the manly expression which distinguished them is exchanged, in the modern Dacian, for an air of sorrow and resignation, the results of the long career of suffering they have endured. According to Lavallée's "History of the Ottoman

Empire," "few countries, few nations, have been more maltreated, trodden under foot, and tortured. Their history is only one long martyrdom; and when we read the monstrous list of devastation and massacre, we feel astonished at finding any persons existing there, or any portion of the land cultivated." The other nations, which have gradually furnished their quota to the population of Moldo-Wallachia, are very numerous; but in the present sketch our purpose will be served by a mention of the more important elements.

The Greeks did not enter the Principalities for commercial purposes until the fifteenth century; eventually, the nomination of the Fanariotes to the dignity of hospodars attracted a great number from Constantinople and other parts of Turkey, who established themselves in the country, and formed alliances with the natives, among whom they were very speedily merged. As early as the seventh century, and even before their conversion to Christianity, the Bulgarians sent colonists into Dacia. At a later period, the wars between Russia and the Porte, and especially those that terminated in the treaties of Jassy and Adrianople, caused the emigration of a great number of families from Bulgaria into MoldoWallachia, while, at the same time, many Wallachian colonists, wearied of the cruelty and injustice of their rulers, sought shelter in the Ottoman territory. The Bulgarians established in the Principalities live by agriculture and sheep breeding. About the eleventh century the Persian invasion caused a great number of Armenians to fly to Poland and Moldavia. At a later period still larger emigrations took place. The Levant trade induced others to come up from Constantinople and settle here. The latter, who are settled in Lower Wallachia and Moldavia, only converse in Turkish, while the co-religionists, settled in the up-country, have preserved their native idiom.

The Jews met with in the Principalities have come either from Poland or Spain. The latter are a portion of those who emigrated and settled in Turkey when the cruelty of Ferdinand and Isabella expelled them from Spain and Portugal. The former, who swarm in Moldavia, and form onethird of the population of Jassy, came from Russia and Austrian Poland, flying from the recruiting nuisance. They speak a sort of broken German, mixed with some Russian and Polish.

The gipsies are supposed to have made their first appearance in the Principalities in the year 1417; and from the earliest period they have been kept in a servile condition. They formerly were divided into the Tsigans of the state, the monasteries, and of private persons, but in 1844, the government having enfranchised the two first classes, they were entered in the list of labourers, and compelled to pay taxes.

Regarded with reference to their occupation and mode of life, the Tsigans may be divided into three classes: 1. The Lajaches, a nomadic race, forming guilds, and engaged in various trades, such as the manufacture of spoons and wooden implements, bear leaders, grooms, smiths, &c.; 2. The Vatraches, who are sedentary, cultivators of the soil, and domestic servants; 3. The Notossi, pagans, half savage and half naked, always wandering, living by plunder, or serving on board the barges, &c.

The two Principalities contain about 250,000 Tsigans-150,000 in Wallachia, 100,000 in Moldavia. The proportion the enfranchished bear to the serfs may be estimated at about two-fifths.

One of the worst features of the governmental system of the Principalities is the exemption from taxation accorded to the nobility and their immediate followers. How glaring this evil is will be seen at once, that they are estimated at 680,000 in the two Principalities, or more than a sixth of the entire population. At the same time, the nobility who enjoy these privileges have no claim to them from birth, for the old families have quite died out, while their place has been usurped by the Fanariotes and other Greek adventurers. In Wallachia, for instance, out of twenty great boyard families, there are only nineteen who date back more than twenty years. In Moldavia you can hardly meet with one family in ten going farther back than John Stourdza, whose family bears date 1828.

The Principalities enjoy an independent internal legislation and administration, known by the name of the "Organic Regulation," and promulgated in 1831 in accordance with a separate act of the treaty of Ackerman. Each principality is governed by a prince, or a hospodar, elected for life by the extraordinary general assembly. In case of death, abdication, or deposition, the ministers of home affairs and of justice, and the president of the supreme divan (in Moldavia), form, under the name of Caimacamate, a provisional administration until a new election has been made. The hospodar has an annual civil list of 24,000l., and has the right to choose his ministers, who are five in number. The chief command of the forces is entrusted to a general, or spathar, who forms one of the council of ministers, or grand administrative council. We may mention here that the Princes Ghika and Stirbey, when they left the Principalities in 1853, handed over the authority to this council. There is also a second council, known as the ordinary council of administration.

The general extraordinary council, to which the election of the prince is entrusted, is composed in Wallachia: 1. of the metropolitan of Bucharest and the Bishops of Bouzés, Rimnik, and Argis; 2. of 50 Boyards of the first class; 3. of 73 Boyards of the second class; 4. of the noble deputies of the districts, in a proportion of 2 to each district; 5. of 27 deputies of corporations: forming a total of 190 members. The general extraordinary assembly in Moldavia is composed of 132 members, chosen in the same manner. The general ordinary assembly deliberates on all government propositions, and controls the expenses of the state. In Wallachia, it is composed of 44 members; in Moldavia, of 35.

The judicial administration of the Principalities is composed of 2 supreme judicial divans, sitting at Bucharest and Jassy; 3 divans of appeal (2 in Wallachia and 1 in Moldavia); 31 tribunals of the first instance (18 in Wallachia, and 13 in Moldavia), sitting at the chief town of each district; and 3 tribunals of commerce. There is also in each village a species of jury, whose functions resemble those of our magistrates; it is composed of three villagers, chosen annually by the commune, and who meet every Sunday, after church, in the house and under the presidency of the papas.

As regards religion, the Roumans in the Principalities profess the Eastern Greek faith. Each of the two provinces is under a metropolitan, depending on the patriarch at Constantinople. This supremacy, however, is only nominal, and is confined to a present, which the metro

politans send to the patriarch upon their installation. An ecclesiastical tribunal, which meets under their direction, decides disputes between husbands and wives, and regulates the law of divorce. The clergy are divided into two orders: the calogers, or monks of St. Basil, who are forced to celibacy, and the secular priests, who are allowed to marry before taking holy orders. The former alone can attain high rank in the Church, and are subdivided into

1. The metropolitan archbishop and the diocesan bishops.

2. The archimandrites, who preside over the monasteries, and are either Greeks or natives, with the capacity of priors.

3. The ieromonastici, or monks consecrated priests, who are empowered to read mass and administer the sacrament.

4. The simple brothers.

The secular priests, under the name of papas, are entrusted with the ordinary parochial duties, and, like the calogers, are exempt from taxation.

There are about 80,000 Catholics in the Principalities, who have 73 churches. All other religions are tolerated in Moldo-Wallachia, with the exception of the Mussulman, for, according to the terms of the capitulation, Turks can neither reside in the country, nor establish mosques for the purposes of their religion.

The military forces of the Principalities, composed of the guard of honour of the hospodars, the quarantine force, the customs officers, and the internal police, comprise the regular army, or the militia, and the frontier guard. The Wallachian regular army is composed of 2 regiments of infantry, 3 squadrons of cavalry, 2 light artillery batteries, and a company of sappers, forming an effective strength of 6000 men. Recruiting only falls on the tax-paying peasants; for the boyards, merchants, artisans, gipsies, Jews, and servants are exempted from service. Two men are drawn from every hundred families. Every individual in the service exempts his family from taxation during the period of his service. He obtains a life exemption if he serves three terms, or eighteen years.

The gendarmerie (trabants or dorobantz) was established in 1832 for the service of the administration, and divided for that purpose into corporals' squads, each of ten men. Three of these squads are attached to each prefecture, and one to each sub-prefecture. The whole corps is formed into 17 companies, forming 2 regiments, each commanded by a colonel. They are compelled to find their own horses, arms, and equipments, but their houses are exempted from capitation and recruiting.

The frontier guard (cordonasi) was established in 1834. The duties of the villages to which the guard of one of the pickets is entrusted, are, to have always at the spot allotted to them four armed men and two boatmen, and to keep the boats and barracks required for their use in a proper state of efficiency. In return, they are exempted from recruiting and the gendarmerie. This corps is also formed into 2 regiments of 20 companies; 8 being stationed on the Austrian frontier, and 12 on the line of the Danube. Our readers can imagine few more ludicrous sights than is displayed at one of these picket-houses when the steamer bearing the Austrian flag goes past, and the guard turns out to salute it: it is very probable that some of the men may be bathing at the time; but, no March-VOL. CIX. NO. CCCCXXXV.

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