of light operatic music. In Italy it is surpassed by | Rossini's Barbieri alone. After the lapse of more than eighty years it evinces its vitality at theatres and concert halls wherever the whole opera or detached pieces are heard. Its humour is founded on human nature itself, and is therefore independent of local and temporal conditions. 1793 Cimarosa returned to Naples where The Secret Marriage and other works were received with great applause. Amongst the works belonging to his last stay in Naples, the charming opera Le Asturie Feminili may be mentioned. This period of his life is said to have been embittered by the intrigues of envious and hostile persons, amongst whom one is sorry to meet with Paesiello his old rival. During the occupation of Naples by the troops of the French Republic, Cimarosa joined the liberal party, and on the return of the Bourbons, was like many of his political friends condemned to death. By the intercession of influential admirers his sentence was commuted into banishment, and the composer left Naples with the intention of returning to St Petersburg. But his health was broken, and after much suffering he died at Venice in 1801 of inflammation of the intestines. The nature of his disease led to the rumour of his having been poisoned by his enemies, which, however, a formal inquest proved to be unfounded. He worked till the last moment of his life, and one of his operas, Artemizia, remained unfinished at his death. (F. H.) CIMBRI, or CIMBRIANS (Greek, Kiußpoi), an ancient nation of unknown affinity, which was one of the most formidable enemies of the Roman power, and has proved one of the most difficult subjects for the historical investigator. About 113 B.C., in company with the Teutones, they defeated the consul Papirius Carbo near Noreia in Styria; and in 109 B.C. they routed another army under the consul Silanus. By the latter success they opened their way to Gallia Narbonensis; and in 105 B.C. they began to threaten the Roman territory itself. They were joined by the Gauls from all quarters; and the Roman army sent against them under Cæpio and Manlius was almost exterminated. Only ten men with two generals are said to have escaped; and, in accordance with a vow which they had made before the battle, the conquerors destroyed all the spoil. The gold and silver they flung into the Rhone; they drowned the horses, and put all the prisoners to death. The Romans were thrown into consternation; but a new army was raised with all expedition, and the command was bestowed on Marius, who at that time enjoyed a high reputation on account of his victories in Africa. The Cimbri were approaching over the eastern Alps, and the Teutones and the other allies over the western. He first attacked and defeated the latter division at Aqua Sextiæ, and then returned to face the Cimbri, who had meanwhile seen the backs of the soldiers of Catullus and Sylla. The vast host attacked the Romans with the utmost fury in the Campi Raudii near Vercellæ (101 B.C.); but, unaccustomed to the heats of Italy, they soon began to yield and were easily overcome. They had put it out of their own power to fly; for, that they might the better keep their ranks, they had, like true barbarians, tied themselves together. It is said that 120,000 were killed on the field of battle and 60.000 were taken prisoners. The people of the Italian districts known as the Sette Communi in Vicenza and the Tredeci Communi in Verona have a belief that they are descended from the remnants of the Cimbrian army, but it is much more probable that they are the posterity of German settlers introduced by the bishops of Trent. Be this at it may, it is certain that after the victory of Marius the Cimbri were no longer of much importance as antagonists of Rome. Two great questions have claimed the attention of the

historian in regard to this people; but to neither of them has anything like a definite answer been obtained. The first has to do with their local habitation, and the second with their ethnographical connection. Cæsar, Sallust, Cicero, and Diodorus Siculus seem to have regarded them as Gauls, and assign them a position within the Gallic area; whereas Strabo, Velleius Paterculus, and Tacitus treat them as Germans and locate them beyond the Rhine. The modern district of Jutland was familiarly known as the Cimbric Chersonese, and mention is made in the Mon. Ancyranum of an einDassy from the Cimbrians of that peninsula to Augustus. Beyond this our ancient authorities do not carry us, and modern discussion has done little but maintain a continual oscillation of opinion. That they were closely connected with the Teutones is evident, and that the Teutones at least were Germanic was for a time regarded as certain ; but more elaborate investigation shows that even this is open to dispute, and can afford no support as an argument. The ancient identification of the people with the Cimmerii and the modern identification with the Cymry are well-nigh exploded, and probably owe their origin to mere similarity of naines.

See Cellarius De Cimbris et Teutonibus; Joh. von Müller, Bellum Cimbricum, 1776; Schiern, De Cimbrorum Origine et Migrationibus, 1842; Latham, Appendix to edition of the Germania of Tacitus; and a paper read by Canon Rawlinson before the Anthropological Institute, May 1876.*

CIMMERII, or Cimmerians, a nomadic people of antiquity who dwelt near the Palus Mæotis or Sea of Azoff, in the Tauric Chersonese or Crimea, and in the Asiatic Sarmatia or the country of the lower Volga. They are said to have desolated Asia Minor prior to the time of Homer; and in their second invasion they penetrated as far westward as Æolis and Ionia, captured Sardis the capital of Lydia in the reign of Ardys, and continued in possession till they were driven out of Asia by Alyattes, the grandson of that sovereign. The fears of the Ionians are commemorated in the elegiac fragments of Callinus.

The name Cimmerii is also given to a mythical people, represented by Homer as inhabiting a remote region of mist and darkness, but localized by later writers near Lake Avernus, or in the Tauric Chersonesus, or in Spain. Their country was fabled to be so gloomy, that the expression “Cimmerian darkness" became proverbial; and Homer, according to Plutarch, drew his images of hell and Pluto from the dismal region they inhabited.

CIMON, an Athenian statesman, was the son of Miltiades. His father died in disgrace, leaving the fine which had been imposed on him unpaid. After a time it was paid by Cimon, who, according to one account, also took his place in prison. Distinguished by military ability, by a gentle and agreeable temper, and by the most open-handed liberality, Cimon gradually rose to the front rauk among his contemporaries. His victorious attacks on the Persians, his ostracism, his request for leave to fight at Tanagra, and his recall on the motion of his rival Pericles are matters of history. (See GREECE.) He died while besieging Citium, 449 B.C.

CINCHONA, the generic name of a number of trees belonging to the Natural Order Rubiacea, but which, with a few allied genera, have been by some authorities established as a distinct order under the name Cinchonacea. Botanically the genus includes trees of varying size, some reaching an altitude of 80 feet and upwards, with evergreen leaves and deciduous stipules. The flowers are arranged in panicles, white or pinkish in colour, with a pleasant odour, the calyx being 5-toothed superior, and the corolla tubular, 5-lobed, and fringed at the margin. The stamens are 5, almost concealed by the tubular corolla, and the ovary terminates in a fleshy disk. The fruit is

an ovoid or sub-cylindrical capsule, splitting from the base, and held together at the apex. The numerous seeds are flat and winged all round. According to the enunieration of Bentham and Hooker, 36 species have been distinguished, but of these not more than about a dozen have been economically utilized. The plants are natives of the western mountainous regions of South America, their geographical range extending from 10° N. to 22° S. lat.; and they flourish generally at an elevation of from 5000 to 8000 feet above sea level, although some have been noted growing as high up as 11,000 feet, and others have been found down to 2600 feet.

The trees are valued solely on account of their bark, which as cinchona bark, Jesuits' bark, or Peruvian bark is, and long has been, the source of the most valuable tonic and febrifuge medicines that have ever been discovered. The earliest well-authenticated instance of the medicinal use of cinchona bark is found in the year 1638, when the countess of Chinchon, the wife of the governor of Peru, was cured of an attack of fever by its administration. The medicine was recommended in her case by the corregidor of Loxa, who was himself said to have practically experienced its supreme virtues eight years earlier. The name Cinchona is due to the connection of the countess of Chinchon with the introduction of the remedy; and it is argued by Mr Markham and others that therefore the term should be written Chinchona. A knowledge of the virtues of the bark was disseminated throughout Europe by members of the Jesuit brotherhood, whence it also became generally known as Jesuits' bark. According to another account, this name arose from its value having been first discovered to a Jesuit missionary who, when prostrate with fever, was cured by the administration of the bark by a South American Indian. The procuring of the bark in the dense forests of New Granada, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia is a work of great toil and hardship to the Indian Cascarilleros or Cascadores engaged in the pursuit. The trees grow isolated or in small clumps which have to be searched out by the experienced Cascarillero, who laboriously cuts his way through the dense forest to the spot where he discovers a tree. Having freed the stem from adhering parasites and twining plants, he proceeds, by beating and cutting oblong pieces, to detach the stem bark as far as is within his reach. The tree is then felled, and the entire bark of stem and branches secured. The bark of the smaller branches, as it dries, curls up, forming "quills," the thicker masses from the stems constituting the "flat" bark of commerce. The drying, pack-❘ ing, and transport of the bark are all operations of a laborious description conducted under most disadvantageous conditions.

The enormous medicinal consumption of these barks, and the wasteful and reckless manner of procuring them in America long ago, caused serious and well-grounded apprehension that the native forests would quickly become exhausted. The attention of European communities was early directed to the necessity of securing steady and permanent supplies by introducing the more valuable species into localities likely to be favourable to their cultivation. The first actual attempt to rear plants was made in Algeria in 1849; but the effort was not successful. In 1854 the Dutch Government seriously undertook the task of introducing the trees into the island of Java, and an expedition for that purpose was fitted out on an adequate scale. Several hundreds of young trees were obtained, of which a small proportion was successfully landed and planted in Java; and as the result of great attention the cultivation of cinchona plantations in that island is now highly prosperous and promising. The desirability of introducing cinchonas into the East Indies was urged in a memorial addressed to the East India Company between 1838 and

1842 by Sir Robert Christison and backed by Dr Forbes Royle; but no active step was taken till 1852, when, again on the motion of Dr Royle, some efforts to obtain plants were made through consular agents. In the end the question was seriously taken up, and Mr Clements R. Markham was appointed to head an expedition to obtain young trees from South America and convey them to India. In 1860 under Mr Markham's superintendence a first consignment of plants was shipped from Islay in Peru, and planted in a favourable situation in the Neilgherry Hills. For several years subsequently additional supplies of plants of various species were obtained from different regions of South America, and some were also procured from the Dutch plantations in Java. Now the culture has spread over a wide area in Southern India, in Ceylon, on the slopes of tho Himalayas, and in British Burmah; and recently plantations which already present a promising appearance have been established in Mauritius. Exclusive of private enterprise, the trees in the Government plantations in India now amount to several millions, and in the Neilgherry plantations they have attained a height of from 20 to 30 feet. The species introduced in the East are principally Cinchona officinalis, C. Calisaya, C. succirubra, C. pitayensis, and C. Pahudiana, some agreeing with certain soils and climates better than others, while the yield of alkaloids and the relative proportions of the different alkaloids differ in each species.

In the original memorial above alluded to, presented to the East India Board by Sir R. Christison, he, according to a communication to the Edinburgh Botanical Society (Trans., vol. xi. p. 111), pointed out that "the transplantation, if successful, would become remunerative. For although it would be a very arduous undertaking were the bark to be collected only by cutting down large trees, which do not attain sufficient growth in less than twenty or twenty-five years, being the only American method, the case would be very different were it shown that bark could be profitably taken from trees very much younger, and without eitber destroying or even injuring them. Now, I had ascertained,” continues Sir Robert, "by chemical analysis that-contrary to the analysis of some French chemists-sulphate of quinia was to be obtained from fine quills of yellow bark taken from twigs two or three years old in as large proportion as from the large flat bark from the trunks and great branches. Consequently, as it appeared, from the facility with which the trees grew in their native forests by suckers from the old roots, when the trunks are properly cut down, that young twigs might safely be cut from them at an early period, it followed that the collection of cinchona bark might be conducted in the same way as that of cinnamon bark at Colombo, where only twigs of one or two years' growth are cut for the purpose, and without injuring the trees. . . . . This doctrine has proved true, so true that it has been found suitable in India even to treat the cinchona plants like osier beds in England, by cutting them down altogether when young, thus using only twigs for the bark, and trusting to suckers for renewing the growth of the plants; and that the result has been the introduction of fine bark from India in such bulk as to have been sold by auction in the London market only nine years after the first cinchona plants were transplanted to India." Mr. W. G. M'Ivor, to whom the success of Indian plantations is largely due, introduced a system of mossing the plants, which consists in wrapping the growing stems in a layer of damp moss, whereby the yield of alkaloid is increased, and the growth of renewed bark promoted. It has been pointed out by Dr De Vrij, and the observation is confirmed by Mr D. Howard, that renewed bark contains the alkaloids not only in different proportions from the

The officinal barks of the British Pharmacopoeia are three in number: (1) the pale or Loxa bark (cortex cinchona pallida) yielded by Cinchona officinalis; (2) the yellow, royal, or Calisaya bark (cortex cinchona flava), the produce of C. Calisaya; and (3) red bark (cortex cinchona rubra) derived from C. succirubra. These are the sources of the tinctures, extracts, and other preparations of pharmacy, while, in common with several others, they also yield the alkaloids which now constitute the chief form in which the active principles of the barks are administered in medicine. Among the other barks used as sources of quinine, &c., the principal are-the ashy crown bark, C. macrocalyx; Carthagena bark, C. lanceolata; Columbian bark, C. lancifolia; Pitayo bark, C. pitayensis; grey or Lima bark, C. micrantha, C. nitida, and C. peruviana.

Leaving out of view certain alkaloids unimportant as yet in a commercial view, and found very sparingly in particular barks, the four primary alkaloids yielded by cinchona barks are quinine, quinidine, cinchonine, and cinchonidine. Certain secondary alkaloids are developed by chemical treatment of these primary principles, and an amorphous substance precipitated from the mother liquors of the quinine manufactured under the name of quinoidine is in considerable medicinal use. Much confusion has arisen in the terminology of the alkaloids by the application of the same name to chemically distinct principles, and by the converse description of the same alkaloids or products under different names. It is found that different barks derived from the same species vary greatly in richness in alkaloids, and that equally great fluctuations occur in the relative proportions of the various principles they yield. When a comparison is instituted among the barks of different species the variations are of course even more marked,- -some barks having been found to yield as high as 13 per cent. of alkaloids, while in others not a trace has been obtained. Certain barks, however, are known as a rule to contain quinine in largest proportion, and in others cinchonine is the most abundant principle. Generally quinine is the most constant and abundant constituent, after which cinchonine, then cinchonidine, while quinidine is the rarest both in proportion and in frequency of occurrence of the principal alkaloids.

The preparation of cinchona bark most extensively employed in medicine is the alkaloid quinine in the form of a sulphate. As the barks from which it is extracted contain besides proportions of one or other of the principal alkaloids above enumerated, a demand for any of them might be supplied without interfering with the production of quinine, and as they also have been proved to be potent febrifuges their non-utilization is a regrettable waste. From the record of an extensive series of experiments instituted by the Indian Government it is demonstrated that quinidine is even more active than quinine, and it forms the principal constituent of a variety of calisaya bark in extensive cultivation in Java. Cinchonidine is only a little less powerful in its febrifugal effect than quinine, and it is abundantly formed by the red bark cultivated in British India. Cinchonine, although the least potent, is an abundant principle, and still a highly valuable and efficient remedial agent. (J. PA.)

CINCINNATI, an important city of the United States, situated in the S.W. part of Ohio, on the N. bank of the Ohio River, in 39° 6' N. lat. and 84° 26' W. long. It is the capital of Hamilton county, and in size is the first city in the State, while, according to the Federal census of 1870, it is the eighth in the United States. It was first settled in 1788 by persons from New Jersey, and is said to have been named in honour of the Cincinnati Society of officers

In

in 1814, and soon acquired a commercial importance which has steadily increased. In 1800 Cincinnati contained but 750 inhabitants. The population amounted to 9602 in 1820, 46,338 in 1840, 115,436 in 1850, 161,044 in 1860, and 216,239 in 1870. Of the total population in 1870, 79,612 were foreigners, including 49,448 born in Germany, 18,624 in Ireland, 3526 in England, and 2093 in France. The city is chiefly built upon two terraces or plateaus, the first 60 and the second 112 feet above the river. Beyond these rises an amphitheatre of hills from 400 to 450 feet high, from which may be obtained a magnificent view of the valley of the Ohio and the surrounding country. On the opposite bank of the river, in the State of Kentucky, are Covington, which had 24,505 inhabitants in 1870, and Newport, which had 15,087. Communication between these cities and Cincinnati is afforded by two bridges and three steam ferries. The wire suspension bridge, which is 1057 feet long between the towers (or, including the approaches, 2252 feet), with a height of 100 feet above low water, was completed in 1867 at a cost of nearly $2,000,000. It has a double waggon road, and two ways for pedestrians. Further up the river is a wrought iron railroad bridge built upon piers; besides a railway track, it has waggon and foot ways. Cincinnati covers an area of 24 square miles, extending along the river about 10 miles, with an average width of 3 miles. The most important part of the city, however, is comprised within a distance of 2 miles along the river. The corporate limits have been much extended in recent years by the annexation of numerous villages, the most important being Columbia, Walnut Hills, Mount Auburn, and Cumminsville. these, which still retain their former names, are seen the most costly residences and villas, with ornamental grounds embracing from 5 to 80 acres each. The city is also noted for the beauty of its suburbs and its surrounding scenery. The streets, which generally cross one another at right angles, are usually from 1 to 2 miles long, and from 50 to 100 feet wide. Many of them are lined with trees. Brick is chiefly used for buildings, with a greyish buff freestone for fronts. Business buildings are usually five and often six stories high. Cincinnati is well supplied with public parks, the largest of which, Eden, is situated on a hill in the eastern part of the city, and contains 216 In Burnet Woods, recently purchased, there are 170 acres, mostly forest, on the hill north of the city. Centrally situated in the city are Washington, Lincoln, Hopkins, and the City parks, which together contain about 25 acres. One of the most attractive objects in the city is the Tyler Davidson bronze fountain which was unveiled in 1871. It was presented to the city by Mr Henry Probasco, a wealthy citizen, who named it after the late Mr Tyler Davidson, the originator of the proposal. Its cost was nearly $200,000. The design embraces fifteen bronze figures, all cast at Munich, the chief one representing a female with outstretched arms, from whose fingers the water falls in fine spray This is the surmounting figure, and reaches a height of 40 feet above the ground. Among the most notable buildings is that of the Federal Govern ment, built of sawed freestone in the Roman Corinthian style, with a porch of six columns; it is three stories high, with a length of 150 feet and a width of 80 feet. The county court-house, in the same style of architecture, is 175 feet square and three stories high, and has a porch with six Corinthian stone columns. The brick buildings for the city offices are 205 feet long and 52 feet wide. The city workhouse, 3 miles from the heart of the city, is a brick structure, 515 feet long and 55 feet wide, erected at a cost, including 26 acres of land, of $650,000.

acres.

It