Cavaignac was severely censured by some for having, by his delay, allowed the insurrection to gather head; but he was declared by an immense majority to have deserved well of his country, and continued to be president of the Executive Committee till the election of a regular president of the republic. It was expected that the suffrages of France would raise Cavaignac to that position. But the mass of the people, and especially the rural population, sick of revolution, and weary even of the moderate republicanism of Cavaignac, were anxious for a stable government. Against the five and a half million votes recorded for Louis Napoleon, Cavaignac received only a million and a half. Not without chagrin at his defeat, he withdrew into the ranks of the opposition. At the coup d'état of the 2d December 1851, he was arrested along with the other members of the opposition; but after a short imprisonment at Ham he was released, and, with his newly-married wife, lived in retirement till his death in 1857. Cavaignac was no statesman, but was a loyal, skilful, and courageous soldier, a zealous republican, and in every way an honourable man. CAVAILLON, a town of France and important railway junction in the department of Vaucluse, on the right bank of the Durance, about 13 miles south-east of Avignon. The town is ill-built and dirty, and carries on a considerable trade in dried fruits, madder, and other productions of the fertile district in which it is situated. It has a fine townhouse, an old church of the 12th century, dedicated to the Virgin and St Veran, and the mutilated remains of a triumphal arch which probably belongs to the time of Constantine. Numerous minor relics of the Roman period have been found to the south of the present town, on the site of the ancient Cabellio, a place of some note in the territory of the Cavares. In medieval and modern history the town has for the most part followed the fortunes of the Comtat Venaissin, in which it was included; and down to the Revolution it was the see of a bishop, and had a large number of monastic establishments. Population in 1872, 3906 in the town, and 8034 in the commune.

and against the centre of the insurgent forces, he attempted | of the Camisaras, was born at Ribaute, near Anduse, in to drive them from their barricades,—with doubtful success Lower Languedoc. The date of his birth is variously given for some time, as every inch of ground was disputed, and between 1679 and 1685. It could hardly be so late as the Government troops were frequently repulsed, till, fresh the last-named year, and may probably be assigned to the regiments arriving, he forced his way to the Place de la period between 1679 and 1681. He was the son of a Bastille, and crushed the insurrection in its headquarters. peasant, and in boyhood was employed first in keeping The contest, which raged from the 23d to the morning of sheep, and afterwards as a baker's apprentice. A pious the 26th of June, was, without doubt, the bloodiest and mother trained him in the Reformed faith. The persecumost resolute the streets of Paris have ever seen. It is tion of Protestants, which began after the revocation of the calculated that more Frenchmen fell in it than in the Edict of Nantes, and which was carried on with pitiless bloodiest battles of the first empire. cruelty in the Cevennes, drove him from his native land in 1701, and he took refuge at Geneva. By the dragonnades of Louis XIV. the Protestants of the Cevennes were at last driven to revolt; and Cavalier, inspired with the hope of being their deliverer, a hope which was raised to the pitch of enthusiasm, it is said, by certain prophecies, returned to his own country in 1702. The insurrection broke out in July of that year, and Cavalier was one of the chosen leaders. Roland was named generalissimo, but Cavalier soon rose to share the chief command with him. Untrained in arms, he displayed not only a fiery courage, but extraordinary military skill. This must have been owing to some extent to the eager attention which he had paid, while keeping his sheep, to the manoeuvres of the troops which were stationed in his native district. Although the enfants de Dieu, as the insurgents were called, numbered at the most only 3000 men in arms, they coped successfully again and again with the much more numerous forces of the king, and were never entirely conquered. After several affairs Cavalier changed the theatre of war to the Vivarais; and on the 10th of February 1703 he defeated the royalist troops on the Ardèche. A few days later he was completely defeated on the same ground and was supposed to have fallen. But he reappeared, was again defeated at Tour-de-Bellot (April 30), and again recovered himself, recruits flocking to him to fill up the places of the slain. By a long series of successes he raised his reputation to the highest pitch, and gained the full confidence of the people. It was in vain that more and more rigorous measures were adopted against the Camisards; in vain that their mountain district was ravaged, sacked, and burned by the Catholics. Cavalier boldly carried the war into the plain, made terrible reprisals, and threatened even Nîmes itself. On April 16, 1704, he encountered Marshal Montrevel himself at the bridge of Nages, with 1000 men against 5000; and though defeated after a desperate conflict, he made a successful retreat with two thirds of his men. Marshal Villars was next sent against him, and instead of fighting proposed negotiation. Roland resolutely turned a deaf ear to him; but Cavalier agreed to treat. A conference was held at Nîmes, hostages being given to Cavalier; and he appeared with an armed and mounted escort, which was drawn up facing the guard of the marshal. The terms proposed were deferred to the decision of the king, Cavalier in the mean while retiring to Calvisson. In this place for some days the Camisards held their meetings openly, and thousands eagerly flocked to them. The result of the negotiation was that Cavalier received for himself a commission with a pension of 1200 livres, and for his brother a captain's commission. He was authorized to form a regiment of Camisards to be sent to Spain; and liberty was restored to his father and other Protestant prisoners. The treaty, which did not include any provision for general liberty of conscience, excited great indignation among the companions of Cavalier. They called him traitor and coward, and deserted him. Disheartened, and with little confidence in the promises of the court, Cavalier afterwards visited Paris for the purpose of an interview with Louis XIV. He was presented privately to the king at Versailles, but was ill received. His dis

CAVALCANTI, GUIDO, an Italian poet and philosopher of the 13th century, who died in 1300. He was the son of a philosopher whom Dante, in the Inferno, condemns to torment among the Epicureans and Atheists; but he himself was a friend of the great poet. By marriage with the daughter of Farinata Uberti, he became head of the Ghibellines; and when the people, weary of continual brawls, aroused themselves, and sought peace by banishing the leaders of the rival parties, he was sent to Sarzana, where he caught a fever, of which he died. Cavalcanti has left a number of love sonnets and canzoni, which were honoured by the praise of Dante. Some are simple and graceful, but many are spoiled by a mixture of metaphysics borrowed from Plato, Aristotle, and the Christian Fathers. They are mostly in honour of a French lady, whom he calls Mandetta. His Canzone d'Amore was extremely popular, and was frequently published; and his complete poetical works are contained in Giunti's collection, Florence, 1527, Venice, 1531-2. He also wrote in prose on philosophy and oratory.

CAVALIER, JEAN (c. 1680-1740), the famous chief

His

originally destined for commerce, and came to England in
1771, in order to obtain more complete information
respecting the various objects of mercantile pursuit. But
he soon abandoned his intention of adopting that mode of
life, and determined to devote his time to science.
mind, however, was rather imitative than original; and
he is said to have found it easier to learn Euclid by
heart than in the ordinary way, which indeed he found im
possible. He became a member of the Royal Academy of
Sciences of Naples, and a fellow of the Royal Society of
London. He died at London in 1809. The splendid
improvements which had been lately made in electricity
directed his attention to that department of natural
philosophy; and his chief works are—A Complete Treatise
of Electricity (1777), Essay on Medical Electricity (1780),
and The Elements of Natural and Experimental Philo

appointment and the reports which were current of intended | pleted his studies at the university of Naples. He was attempts on his life or liberty induced him to leave France. He went to Switzerland, and afterwards to Holland; and there he married a daughter of Madame Dunoyer, the latter a lady of Nimes, who had once been sought in marriage by Voltaire. He then passed into England for the purpose of recruiting his regiment of Camisards. He had an interview with Queen Anne, of which conflicting accounts are given. But so highly was his military genius valued that he was sent with his regiment to take part in the famous expedition to Spain, under the earl of Peterborough and Sir Cloudesley Shovel (May 1705). At the battle of Almanza his Camisards encountered a French regiment which they had met in the Cevennes, and, without firing, the foes rushed to a hand to hand fight and made a fearful slaughter. Cavalier was severely wounded, and was saved from death by an English officer. On his return to England a small pension was given him, and after long wait-sophy (1803). ing he was made a major-general and named governor of Jersey. This post was afterwards exchanged for the governorship of the Isle of Wight. Cavalier died at Chelsea, in the first half of May 1740, and there his remains were interred. Malesherbes, the courageous friend and defender of Louis XVI., bears the following eloquent testimony to this young hero of the Cevennes :-"I confess," he says, "that this warrior, who, without ever having served, found himself by the mere gift of nature a great general,-this Camisard who was bold to punish a crime in the presence of a fierce troop which maintained itself by like crimes,—this coarse peasant who, when admitted at twenty years of age into the society of cultivated people, caught their manners and won their love and esteem,--this man who, though accustomed to a stormy life, and having just cause to be proud of his success, had yet cnough philosophy in him by nature to enjoy for thirty-five years a tranquil private life,-appears to me to be one of the rarest characters to be found in history." There is a work, little esteemed, entitled Memoirs of the War in the Cevennes, under Colonel Cavalier, which appears to have been written not by Cavalier himself but by a French refugee named Galli. For a more detailed account see Mrs Bray's Revolt of the Protestants of the Cevennes, published in 1870.

CAVALLINI, PIETRO (c. 1259-1344), born in Rome towards 1259, was an artist of the earliest epoch of the modern Roman School, and was taught painting and mosaic by Giotto while employed at Rome; and it is believed that he assisted his master in the mosaic of the Navicella, or ship of St Peter, in the porch of the church of that saint. Lanzi describes him as an adept in both arts, and mentions with approbation his grand fresco of a Crucifixion at Assisi, still in tolerable preservation; he was, moreover, versed in architecture and in sculpture. According to George Vertue, it is highly probable that Cavallini executed, in 1279, the mosaics and other ornaments of the tomb of Edward the Confessor in Westminster Abbey. He would thus be the "Petrus Civis Romanus "whose name is inscribed on the shrine; but his extreme youth at this date tends to discredit the supposition. The work, if really his, must have been executed in Rome, where he appears to have constantly resided. He died in 1344, at the age of eighty-five, in the odour of sanctity, having in his later years been a man of eminent piety. He is said to have carved for the Basilica of San Paolo fuori le Mura, close to Rome, a crucifix which spoke in 1370 to a female saint.

CAVALLO, TIBERIUS (1749-1809), an electrician and natural philosopher, son of a physician established at Naples, was born in that city, March 30, 1749. His father died when he was only eleven years old, but he received a liberal education through the kindness of his friends, and com

CAVALRY. From the earliest dates, at which there is any record of armed men being systematically trained and organized, cavalry has always formed an integral part of every army, although the relative size and importance of the arm has varied, according to the nature of the country and the peculiarities of its inhabitants. Egypt probably affords the earliest historical records of any distinct attempt at military organization. In that country cavalry and horsemanship were held in high repute, according to the prophet Isaiah. Diodorus of Sicily tells us that Osyman. dias led 20,000 cavalry against the rebels in Bactriana, and that twenty-five generations elapsed between Osymandias and Sesostris, who seems to have been the chief founder of Egyptian greatness, and to have lived at a period indistinctly laid down in history, but certainly long prior to tho Trojan war. In early times chariots appear to have been associated with the horsemen of an army, although perfectly distinct from them. Frequent references are made in the Bible to "chariots and horsemen ;" and Josephus states that the army of Israelites that escaped from Egypt numbered 50,000 horsemen and 600 chariots of war. Herodotus frequently speaks of the cavalry arm, and Hippocrates mentions the existence of a corps of young women whose breasts were seared to enable them to use the bow and javelin. Plato likewise speaks somewhat vaguely of a corps of young ladies about 500 B.C. The existence of Amazons as a race has never been supported by even moderately authentic testimony, although by some they were believed to live on the north of Asia Minor.

the River Thermodon in

The first authentic account that we have of cavalry being regularly organized is given by Xenophon, who states that in the first Messenian war, 743 B.C., Lycurgus formed his cavalry in divisions. Some hundred years later, in 371 B.C., Epaminondas raised a corps of 5000 cavalry, and from this date it may be said the arm was much cultivated throughout Greece, until Philip and Alexander of Macedon raised it to a great pitch of excellence. Both these monarchs were indebted for several of their greatest successes to the prowess of their cavalry; and the exploits of Alexander's 7000 horsemen at the battle of Arbela, 331 B. C., in which he signally defeated Darius, may well serve as an example for future generations. The Greek cavalry were divided into heavy, or "cataphracti," and light, or "me cataphracti." To these Alexander added a third class, termed "dimachæ," who were trained to fight on foot or on horseback. the death of Alexander the Great cavalry appears to have fallen into comparative disuse until the days of Hannibal and the Carthaginians. Dire experience, more especially the defeats of the Ticinus and the Trebia, taught the Romans the value of cavalry; and in the latter days of the republic it became the most popular and highly favoured service of

After

and against the centre of the insurgent forces, he attempted | of the Camisaras, was born at Ribaute, near Andase, to drive them from their barricades,-with doubtful success for some time, as every inch of ground was disputed, and the Government troops were frequently repulsed, till, fresh regiments arriving, he forced his way to the Place de la Bastille, and crushed the insurrection in its headquarters. The contest, which raged from the 23d to the morning of the 26th of June, was, without doubt, the bloodiest and most resolute the streets of Paris have ever seen. It is calculated that more Frenchmen fell in it than in the bloodiest battles of the first empire.

Cavaignac was severely censured by some for having, by his delay, allowed the insurrection to gather head; but he was declared by an immense majority to have deserved | well of his country, and continued to be president of the Executive Committee till the election of a regular president of the republic. It was expected that the suffrages of France would raise Cavaignac to that position. But the mass of the people, and especially the rural population, sick of revolution, and weary even of the moderate republicanism of Cavaignac, were anxious for a stable government. Against the five and a half million votes recorded for Louis Napoleon, Cavaignac received only a million and a half. Not without chagrin at his defeat, he withdrew into the ranks of the opposition. At the coup d'état of the 2d December 1851, he was arrested along with the other members of the opposition; but after a short imprisonment at Ham he was released, and, with his newly-married wife, lived in retirement till his death in 1857. Cavaignac was no statesman, but was a loyal, skilful, and courageous soldier, a zealous republican, and in every way an honourable man. CAVAILLON, a town of France and important railway junction in the department of Vaucluse, on the right bank of the Durance, about 13 miles south-east of Avignon. The town is ill-built and dirty, and carries on a considerable trade in dried fruits, madder, and other productions of the fertile district in which it is situated. It has a fine townhouse, an old church of the 12th century, dedicated to the Virgin and St Veran, and the mutilated remains of a triumphal arch which probably belongs to the time of Constantine. Numerous minor relics of the Roman period have been found to the south of the present town, on the site of the ancient Cabellio, a place of some note in the territory of the Cavares. In medieval and modern history the town has for the most part followed the fortunes of the Comtat Venaissin, in which it was included; and down to the Revolution it was the see of a bishop, and had a large number of monastic establishments. Population in 1872, 3906 in the town, and 8034 in the commune.

CAVALCANTI, GUIDO, an Italian poet and philosopher of the 13th century, who died in 1300. He was the son of a philosopher whom Dante, in the Inferno, condemns to torment among the Epicureans and Atheists; but he himself was a friend of the great poet. By marriage with the daughter of Farinata Uberti, he became head of the Ghibellines; and when the people, weary of continual brawls, aroused themselves, and sought peace by banishing the leaders of the rival parties, he was sent to Sarzana, where he caught a fever, of which he died. Cavalcanti has left a number of love sonnets and canzoni, which were honoured by the praise of Dante. Some are simple and graceful, but many are spoiled by a mixture of metaphysics borrowed from Plato, Aristotle, and the Christian Fathers. They are mostly in honour of a French lady, whom he calls Mandetta. His Canzone d'Amore was extremely popular, and was frequently published; and his complete poetical works are contained in Giunti's collection, Florence, 1527, Venice, 1531-2. He also wrote in prose on philosophy and oratory.

CAVALIER, JEAN (c. 1680-1740), the famous chief

Lower Languedoc. The date of his birth is variously give
between 1679 and 1685. It could hardly be so late
the last-named year, and may probably be assigned to the
period between 1679 and 1681. He was the son of i
peasant, and in boyhood was employed first in kee
sheep, and afterwards as a baker's apprentice. A pitu
mother trained him in the Reformed faith.
The persecu
tion of Protestants, which began after the revocation of the
Edict of Nantes, and which was carried on with pitiless
cruelty in the Cevennes, drove him from his native land in
1701, and he took refuge at Geneva. By the dragonnada
of Louis XIV. the Protestants of the Cevennes were at last
driven to revolt; and Cavalier, inspired with the hope of
being their deliverer, a hope which was raised to the pitch
of enthusiasm, it is said, by certain prophecies, returned
to his own country in 1702. The insurrection broke on:
in July of that year, and Cavalier was one of the chosen
leaders. Roland was named generalissimo, but Cavalier
soon rose to share the chief command with him. Untrained
in arms, he displayed not only a fiery courage, but extir-
ordinary military skill. This must have been owing to
some extent to the eager attention which he had paid,
while keeping his sheep, to the manœuvres of the trooja
which were stationed in his native district. Although
the enfants de Dieu, as the insurgents were called, numbered
at the most only 3000 men in arms, they coped
successfully again and again with the much more numerous
forces of the king, and were never entirely conquered
After several affairs Cavalier changed the theatre of war
to the Vivarais; and on the 10th of February 1703 be
defeated the royalist troops on the Ardèche. A few days
later he was completely defeated on the same ground and
was supposed to have fallen. But he reappeared, was
again defeated at Tour-de-Bellot (April 30), and again
recovered himself, recruits flocking to him to fill
up the
places of the slain. By a long series of successes he raised
his reputation to the highest pitch, and gained the full
confidence of the people. It was in vain that more and
more rigorous measures were adopted against the Camisards;
in vain that their mountain district was ravaged, sacked,
and burned by the Catholics. Cavalier boldly carried the
war into the plain, made terrible reprisals, and threatened
even Nîmes itself. On April 16, 1704, he encountered Mar-
shal Montrevel himself at the bridge of Nages, with 1000
men against 5000; and though defeated after a desperate
conflict, he made a successful retreat with two thirds of
his men. Marshal Villars was next sent against him, and
instead of fighting proposed negotiation. Roland reso
lutely turned a deaf ear to him; but Cavalier agreed to
treat. A conference was held at Nîmes, hostages being
given to Cavalier; and he appeared with an armed and
mounted escort, which was drawn up facing the guard of
the marshal. The terms proposed were deferred to the
decision of the king, Cavalier in the mean while retiring to
Calvisson. In this place for some days the Camisards
held their meetings openly, and thousands eagerly flocked
to them. The result of the negotiation was that Cavalier
received for himself a commission with a pension of 1200
livres, and for his brother a captain's commission. He was
authorized to form a regiment of Camisards to be sent to
Spain; and liberty was restored to his father and other
Protestant prisoners. The treaty, which did not include
any provision for general liberty of conscience, excited
great indignation among the companions of Cavalier. They
called him traitor and coward, and deserted him. Dis
heartened, and with little confidence in the promises of the
court, Cavalier afterwards visited Paris for the purpose of
an interview with Louis XIV. He was presented privately
to the king at Versailles, but was ill received. His dis

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