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five miles distant. It is walled, and contains two nunneries. | Denis he was again sent to Germany to solicit aid against three monasteries, and two hospitals, as well as several churches, in which there are paintings by Ribalta, a native artist. There is a brisk local trade maintained in the weaving of sail-cloth and linen. In the time of the Moors the city was situated on a height to the north of the present position, to which it was removed by Jayme L in 1233. Population, 20,123.

CASTELNAU, MICHEL DE, SIEUR DE LA MAUVISSIÈRE (c.1520-1592), a French soldier and diplomatist, ambassador to Queen Elizabeth, was born in Touraine about 1520. He was one of a large family of children, and his grandfather, Pierre de Castelnau, was equerry to Louis XII Endowed with a clear and penetrating intellect and remarkable strength of memory, he received a careful education, and made rapid progress in his studies. To complete his education he travelled in Italy and made a long stay at Rome. He then spent some time in the Island of Malta, afterwards entered the army, and made his first acquaintance with the art of war in the chequered compaigns of the French in Italy. His abilities and his courage won for him the friendship and protection of the cardinal_of Lorraine, who took him into his service. In 1557 a command in the navy was given to him, and the cardinal proposed to get him knighted. This, however, he declined, and then rejoined the French army in Picardy. Various delicate missions requiring tact and discretion were entrusted to him by the constable de Montmorency, and these he discharged so satisfactorily that he was sent by the king, Henry II., to Scotland, with despatches for Mary Stuart, then betrothed to the Dauphin (afterwards Francis II). From Scotland he passed into England, and treated with Queen Elizabeth respecting her claims on Calais (1559), a settlement of which was effected at the congress of Cambray. Castelnau was next sent, with the title of ambassador, to the princes of Germany, for the purpose of prevailing upon them to withdraw their favour from the Protestants. This embassy was followed by missions to Margaret of Parma, governess of the Netherlands, to Savoy, and then to Rome, to ascertain the views of Pope Paul IV. with regard to France. Paul having died just before his arrival, Castelnau used his influence in favour of the election of Pius IV. Returning to France he once more entered the navy, and served under his former patron. It was his good fortune, at Nantes, to discover the earliest symptoms of the conspiracy of Amboise, which he immediately reported to the Government. After the death of Francis II. (December 1560), he accompanied the queen, Mary Stuart, to Scotland, and remained with her a year, during which time he made several journeys into England, and attempted to bring about a reconciliation between Mary and Queen Elizabeth. The wise and moderate counsels which he offered to the former were unheeded. In 1562, in consequence of the civil war in France, he returned there. He was employed against the Protestants in Brittany, was taken prisoner in an engagement with them and sent to Havre, but was soon after exchanged. In the midst of the excited passions of his countrymen, Castelnau, who was a sincere Catholic, maintained a wise self-control and moderation, and by his counsels rendered valuable service to the Government. He served at the siege of Rouen, distinguished himself at the battle of Dreux, took Tancarville, and contributed in 1563 to the recapture of Havre from the English. During the next ten years Castelnau was employed in various important missions;-first to Queen Elizabeth, to negotiate a peace; next to the duke of Alba, the new governor of the Netherlands. On this occasion he discovered the project formed by Condé and Coligny to seize and carry off the royal family at Monceaux (1567). After the battle of St

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the Protestants; and on his return he was rewarded for his services with the post of governor of Saint-Dizier, and a company of orderlies. At the head of his company fe took part in the battles of Jarnac and Moncontour. 1572 he was sent to England by Charles IX., to allay the excitement created by the massacre of St Bartholomew; and the same year he was sent to Germany and Switzerland. Two years later he was reappointed by Henry III. ambassa dor to Queen Elizabeth, and he remained at her court for ten years. During this period he used his influence to promote the marriage of the queen with the duke of Alençon, with a view especially to strengthen and maintain the alliance of the two countries. But Elizabeth made so many promises only to break them that at last he refused to accept them or communicate them to his Government. On his return to France he found that his château of La Mauvissière had been destroyed in the civil war; and as he refused to recognize the authority of the League, the duke of Guise deprived him of the governorship of Saint-Dizier. He was thus brought almost to a state of destitution. But on the accession of Henry IV., the king, who knew his worth, and was confident that although he was a Catholic he might rely on his fidelity, gave him a command in the army, and entrusted him with various confidential missions. Castelnau died at Joinville in 1592. The Mémoires left by this great diplomatist rank very high among the original authorities for the period they cover, the eleven years between 1559 and 1570. They were written during his last embassy in England for the benefit of his son; and they possess the merits of clearness, veracity, and impartiality. They were first printed in 1621; again, with additions by Le Laboureur, in 2 vols. folin, in 1659; and a third time, still further enlarged by Jean Godefroy, 3 vols. folio, in 1731. Castelnau translated into French the Latin work of Ramus On the Manners and Customs of the Ancient Gauls. Various letters of his are preserved in the Cottonian and Harleian collections in the British Museum.

CASTELNAUDARY, the chief town of an arrondissement in the department of Aude, in France, 21 miles northwest of Carcassonne. It is finely situated on an elevation in the midst of a fertile and well-cultivated plain; and its commercial facilities are greatly increased by the Canal du Midi, which widens out, as it passes the town, into an extensive basin or reservoir, surrounded with wharves and warehouses. The principal buildings are the courthouses, the church of St Michel, the exchange, and the communal college. There are large manufactures of woollen and cotton goods, linen, leather, bricks, tiles, and earthenware; an extensive trade is maintained in lime, gypsum, grain, fruits, and wine; and the building of canal boats forms an important industry. By some authorities Castelnaudary is supposed to represent the ancient Sostomagus, and to receive its present name, which they regard as a corruption of the Latin Castrum Novum Arianorum, from the fact that it was rebuilt by the Visigoths, who were adherents of the Arian party. It is distinctly mentioned in the 12th century, and in 1212 it was remarkable as the scene of a great conflict between the counts of Toulouse and Foix and Simon de Montfort, in which the former were defeated. In 1229 the town was deprived of its ramparts; and in 1355 it was captured and burned by the Black Prince. In 1632 the duke of Montmorency was defeated here by the royal troops under Schomberg. Population in 1872, 7946.

CASTELO BRANCO (ie., White Castle), a town and bishop's seat of Portugal, in the province of Beira, on a hill near the Liria, 64 miles east by south of Coimbra. It is surrounded by walls flanked by towers, and has a ruined castle on the summit of the hill. Population about 5580.

and when he died at Toledo in 1529, it was said that he had died of grief and shame at the imputation. The emperor mourned him as "one of the world's best cavaliers." A portrait of him, now at the Louvre, was painted by Raphael, who disdained neither his opinion nor his advice. Castiglione wrote little, but that little is of rare merit. His verses, in Latin and Italian, are elegant in the extreme; his letters (Padua, 1769-1771) are full of grace and finesse. But the book by which he is best remembered is the famous treatise, Il Cortegiano, written in 1514, published at Venice by Aldus in 1528, and translated into English by a certain Thomas Hoby as early as 1561. This book, called by the Italians Il Libro d'Oro, and remarkable for its easy force and undemonstrative elegance of style no less than for the nobility and manliness of its theories, describes the Italian gentleman of the Renaissance, uuder his brightest and fairest aspect, and gives a charming picture of the court of Guidobaldo da Montefeltre, duke of Urbino, "confessedly the purest and most elevated court in Italy." In the form of a discussion held in the duchess's drawingroom-with Elizabetta Gonzaga, Pietro Bembo, Bernardo Bibbiena, Giuliano de' Medici, Emilia Pia, and Ceretino the Unique among the speakers-the question, What constitutes a perfect courtier is debated. With but few differences, the type determined on is the ideal gentleman of the present day. See Ginguené, Histoire Litteraire de l'Italie, vii.; and J. A. Symonds, The Renaissance in Ituly, London, 1875.

CASTI, GIOVANNi Battista (1721-1803), an Italian poet, was born of humble parents at Montefiascone, in the States of the Church, in 1721. He rose to the dignity of canon in the cathedral of his native place, but gave up his chance of church preferment to satisfy his gay and restless spirit by visiting most of the capitals of Europe. In 1782, on the death of Metastasio, he was appointed Poeta Cesario, or poet-laureate of Austria, in which capacity he applied himself with great success to the opera bouffe; but, in 1796, he resigned this post, in order that he might not be hampered by political relations; and he spent the close of his life as a private gentleman at Paris, where he died in 1803. Casti is best known as the author of the Novelle Gal anti, and of Gli Animali Parlanti, a poetical allegory, over which he spent eight years (1794-1802), and which, not withstanding its tedious length, excited so much interest that it was translated into French, German, and Spanish, and (very freely and with additions) into English in W. S. Rose's Court and Parliament of Beasts (Lɔnd. 1819). Written during the time of the Revolution in France, it was intended to exhibit the feelings and hopes of the people, and the defects and absurdities of various political systems. The Novelle Galanti is a series of poetical tales, in the ottava rima,—a metre largely used by Italian poets for that class of compositions. The sole merit of these poems consists in the harmony and purity of the style, and the liveliness and sarcastic power of many passages. They are, how-vi., ever, characterised by the grossest licentiousness; and there is no originality of plot,-that, according to the custom of Italian novelists, being taken from classical mythology or other ancient legends. Among the other works of Casti is the Poema Tartaro, a mock-heroic satire on the court of Catherine II., with which he was personally acquainted. CASTIGLIONE DELLE STIVIERE, a town of Italy, in the province of Brescia, 20 miles north-west of Mantua. It has a castle, a theatre, and two fine churches, and was formerly the capital of a small principality dependent on the duchy of Mantua. In 1796 the Austrians, under Wurmser, were defeated there by Marshal Augereau, who was afterwards rewarded by Napoleon with the title of duke of Castiglione. Population, 5237. This town must not be confounded with Castiglione Fioretino, a flourishing township, about 11 miles south of Arezzo by rail, which is chiefly engaged in the culture of the silk-worm.

CASTIGLIONE, BALDASSARE (1478-1529), diplomatist and man of letters, was born at Casatico near Mantua, and was educated at Milan under the famous professors Merula and Chalcondyles. In 1496 he entered the service of Lodovico Sforza, duke of Milan, returning to Mantua in 1500 when Lodovico was carried prisoner into France. In 1504 he was attached to the court of Guidobaldo Malatesta, duke of Urbino, and in 1506 he was sent by that prince on a mission to Henry VII. of England, who had before conferred on Federigo Malatesta, "the Good Duke," the most famous mercenary of his age, the order of the Garter. Guidobaldo dying childless in 1508, the duchy of Urbino was given to Francesco Maria della Rovere, for whom Castiglione, envoy at the court of Leo X. (Medici), obtained the office of generalissimo of the Papal troops. Charged with the arrangement of the dispute between Clement VII. (Medici) and Charles V., Castiglione crossed, in 1524, into Spain, where he was received with highest honours, being afterwards naturalized, and made bishop of Avila. In 1527, however, Rome was seized and sacked by the Imperialists under Bourbon, and in the July of the same year the surrender of the castle of Sant' Angelo placed Clement in their hands. Castiglione had been tricked by the emperor, but there were not wanting acousations, of treachery against himself. He had, however, placed fidelity highest among the virtues of his ideal "courtier;"

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CASTIGLIONE, GIOVANNI BENEDETTO (1616-1670), currently named in Italy Il Grechetto, and in France Le Benédette, a painter of the Genoese School, was born in Genoa, and studied for some time under Vandyck. He painted portraits, historical pieces, and landscapes, but chiefly excelled in fairs, markets, and rural scenes with animals. His paintings are to be found at Rome, Venice, Naples, Florence, and more especially Genoa and Mantua. He also executed a great number of etchings, which are spirited, free, and full of taste; Diogenes searching for a Man is one of the principal of these. The etchings are remarkable for light and shade, and have even earned for Castiglione the name of " a second Rembrandt." The Presepio (Nativity of Jesus) in the church of San Luca, Genoa, ranks among his most celebrated paintings; the Louvre also contains eight characteristic examples. In his closing years he lived in Mantua, painting for the court; here he received his name of "Grechetto," from the classic air of his pastorals, and here he died of gout in 1670. His brother Salvatore and nis son Francesco excelled in the same subjects; and it is thought that many paintings which are ascribed to Benedetto are only copies after him, or perhaps originals by his son or brother.

CASTIGLIONE, CARLO OTTAVIO, COUNT (1784-1849), an Italian philologist of considerable reputation, was born at Milan of an ancient family. His principal work was done in connection with the Arabic and other Orienta! languages; but he also performed good service in several other departments. In 1819 he published Monete Cufiche del Museo di Milano, and assisted Cardinal Mai in his Ulphile partium ineditarum in Ambrosianis palimpsestis repertarum editio. A learned Mémoire geographique et numismatique sur la partie orientale de la Barbarie appelée Afrikia par les Arabes appeared in 1826, and established his reputation. In 1829 he published by himself the Gothic version of the second epistle of Paul to the Corinthians; and this was followed by the Gothic version of the epistle to the Romans, the first epistle to the Corinthians, and the epistle to the Ephesians in 1834; by Galatians, Philippians, and 1 Thessalonians in 1835, and by 2 Thessalonians in 1839. His life was written by Biondelli, and appeared at Milan in 1856.

CASTILE (in Spanish, Castilla), an ancient kingdom of Spain occupying the central districts of the peninsula. For its history as a separate kingdom see the article SPAIN. The name Castile is derived from the existence of numerous forts (castillos) erected on the frontiers to afford protection from enemies. The northern part of the old kingdom, which was first rescued from the Moors, is called Custilla la Vieja, or Old Castile; the southern, more recently acquired, is called Castilla la Nueva, or New Castile. The length of Castile from north to south is about 300 miles; the breadth, about 160 miles; and the total area about 45,000 square miles, or nearly one-fourth that of Spain. Old Castile is bordered on the N. by the Bay of Biscay, on the E. and N.E. by Biscay, Alava, Navarre, and Aragon, on the S. by New Castile, and on the W. by Leon and Asturias. It is divided into the provinces of Burgos, Logroño, Santander, Soria, Segovia, Avila, Palencia, Valladolid, and has an area of 25,409 square miles, and a population estimated in 1870 at 1,689,864 inhabitants. The country consists of vast plains, which form, between the Cantabrian chain in the north and the chain of Sierras stretching south-west from Aragon to Estremadura, a great table-land, of a height between 2500 and 4000 feet above the sea. The principal rivers are the Douro and the Ebro. The plains are barren and dry, with scarcely a tree, meadow, or spring of water; but the hills bordering the mountain ranges are well clothed with oak-forests. The climate is healthy, but subject to great extremes of cold and heat; frosts in the higher regions may last three months at a time. The soil 18 productive, but poorly cultivated; the harvests of wheat, however, are abundant. Wine and oil of inferior quality, and madder, are produced in considerable quantity, but fruits are scarce except at Bureba. The export trade is chiefly in wool, cattle, sheep, and wheat. The bad state of the roads (which are often impassable for mules), the insufficiency of railway communication, and the neglected condition of the Port of Santander, are great obstacles to

commerce.

New Castile is bounded on the N. by Old Castile, on the E. by Aragon and Valencia, on the S. by La Mancha, on the W. by Estremadura. It forms the southern portion of the great central table-land of Spain, and comprises the provinces of Madrid, Toledo, Guadalajara, and Cuenca. The total area is 20,178 square miles, inhabited by a population estimated in 1870 at 1,277,123. The principal mountain ranges are the Sierra Guadarama in the north, and the Sierra Morena in the south. The chief rivers are the Tagus, Guadiana, Guadalquiver, Segura, and Xucar. The climate is more rigorous than that of Old Castile, and the mean temperature, on account of the elevation of surface, is not more than 59°; but the heat in summer is extreme in the valleys. The rainfall is not more then 10 inches in a year; the winds are dry and violent. The whole country presents the aspect of a barren dusty steppe, with patches of olive-trees here and there, and wheat, pea, and saffron fields. During the rainy season the vegetation is very luxuriant; but agriculture is in a backward state; the soil is fertile, but the rivers are not used for its irrigation, The total quantity of wheat raised is barely sufficient for the wants of the population. Hemp and flax and olivetrees are cultivated. Timber and fire-wood are becoming dearer, as the country is very little wooded. Honey is gathered in considerable quantities; and sheep, oxen, and mules are reared in great numbers. Iron, salt, and quicksilver are worked; the mineral resources are good, but ill developed. The manufactures are chiefly of woollen goods, plain and figured velvets, silks, satins, calicoes, stockings, earthenware, and cutlery.

The inhabitants of both Old and New Castile are a loyal

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and manly race, preserving the primitive simplicity and pure Spanish, as well as the pride, of their forefathers They are uneducated and inclined to bigotry, but naturally shrewd and intelligent. The tillage of the land and the pasturing of sheep are their chief employments.

CASTILLEJO, CHRISTOBAL DE (1494-1556), was born, according to Moratin, in Ciudad-Rodrigo. Attached at an early age to the household of Ferdinand of Austria, afterwards king of Bohemia and Hungary, and eventually emperor, Castillejo rose in the prince's service to the post of secretary, taking orders on the departure of his master from Spain, in which country he remained some time. A letter written during this period (1523) by Martin de Salinas to the treasurer Salamanca, in reply to one asking him to provide the treasurer with a secretary, bears flattering witness to the ability and temper of Castillejo, who is warmly recommended to the vacancy. It is not known whether he obtained this post. Certain it is, however, that he soon afterwards folowed Ferdinand, and resumed his secretaryship; with but little profit, if we may judge from many passages in his verse, in which he deplores his poverty and the forlorn position unaided merit held at court. He was several times in Venice, where certain of his opuscules were printed for smuggling into Spain,-Castillejo, like Torres Naharro, whose comedies and satires were also published in Italy, being on the Index of the Inquisition, on account of the strong anti-clerical bias of his satirical works. He died in a monastery near Vienna, two years before Ferdinand's recognition as emperor.

Castillejo was a voluminous writer of verse. His poems are worthy of note, not only on account of their intrinsic merit, but also as being the last manifestation of importance of the older Spanish School of poetry against the younger section under the leadership of Garcilaso de la Vega. That fine melodist and brilliant rhetorician, the Ronsard of Spain, seconded by Boscan and Hurtado de Mendoza, had introduced into his own land the rhythms and cadences employed in Italy; through him the sonnet, the canzone, the octaves of the comic epics, and even the terza rima of the comedy itself had been transplanted into Spanish soil; and he and his followers had created a vocabulary of picked and exquisite terms which, passing through the hands of the magniloquent Herrera, was to end in the monstrous dialect of Gongora and his disciples. Against this revolution Castillejo set his face, fighting gallantly and unavailingly in defence of the antique metrical forms and structures. The use of these be never abandoned, save on one or two occasions when, for purposes of parody, he produced sonnets and octaves. In the poetry of Castillejo, which is written chiefly in "quintillas "and coplas de pié quebrado," are all the qualities that make the older verse of Spain such pleasant reading the graceful simplicity, the artless elegance, the fluency and spontaneity (which sometimes, however, degenerates into garrulity), the keen and homely mother wit, often gross but seldom offensive or cruel. He has, however, other qualities which are peculiar to himself, and which give him a place apart even among the school that may be said to end in him; his society verses are bright with a pleasant gossipy amiability; his satires are quick with a certain cynical sprightliness that makes them still amusing and attractive; while one at least of his poems, the "Dialogue between Himself and his Pen," overflows with a humorous tenderness that is extremely effective. Writing on anything and everything-" On a Green and Yellow Costume," "On the Wood Guaiacum," "On a Friend's Horse called Tristram," he of course produced a cloud of rhymes that are intolerable and to be avoided. Some of his "Villancicos," Letras," and " Motes," however, are charming in despite of years; a not infrequent note in them reminding the

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reader somewhat of the quaint graces of Charles of Orleans, with whom in this foudness for elaborate trifles Castillejo may be said to have a certain affinity, though immeasurably his inferior in delicacy of touch and artistic restraint. His principal satires, "The Sermon against Love" and the "Dialogue of the Conditions of Women," are amusing and witty enough; while his "Galatea," an imitation of Ovid, must be regarded as one of the sweetest pieces of pastoral poetry in the whole range of Spanish letters, and, with the exception of the exquisite little anacreontic to Love, as the best of Castillejo's many poems.

The strong anti-clerical feelings of Castillejo, himself an ecclesiastic, have been already reinarked. His satires were treated exceedingly ill on this account by the officers of the Inquisition, who did not scruple to excise large portions of them, and to fill up the gaps thus caused with screeds of a contrary tendency, the work of their own back rhymesters, who had at this period a great deal of work to do of the same sort. The poems themselves are divided into three books, the first devoted to "Love," and the second to "Conversation and Pastime;" while the third is composed of moral and religious verses. The best text is that given in the Biblioteca de Autores Españoles, vol. xxxii., Madrid, 1832.

CASTING. See FOUNDING.

CASTLE (Saxon castel, Latin castellum, diminutive from castrum, whence the French château and chatel, as in Neufchatel), an encampment, a fortress or place rendered defensible either by nature or art. The term is also often applied to the principal mansion of a prince or nobleman.

The frequent and protracted wars between neighbouring tribes and peoples which took place in early times must soon have rendered evident the expediency of erecting forts. These at first consisted only of earthen ramparts or rows of palisades, situated mostly on commanding eminences. With improved methods of assault and the advance of constructive art came erections of wood and stone, which by and by were flanked with towers and surrounded by a wall | and ditch. Increased mechanical and architectural skill, while it made little alteration on the fundamental plan of such buildings, gradually introduced numerous contrivances for repelling assault, and rendering a great castle well-nigh impregnable.

Confining our narrative of the progress of castle-building to Britain, we notice first the hill-forts which are ascribed to the ancient Britons. Typical examples of them are the Herefordshire Beacon on the Malvern Hills, and the Barmekin of Echt in Aberdeenshire. The latter consists of the remains of two circular dry stone walls surrounded by three ditches. The inner wall seems to have been about 12 feet thick, and 300 yards in circumference, and contains five entrances all in an oblique direction. The outer wall, which is said to be more modern than the inner, is much more entire, and has no entrances through it. The ditches are about 9 feet broad.

Of the castella which the Romans erected in this country during their long occupation of it, Richborough Castle near Sandwich in Kent is almost the only relic. It is, from the evidence of coins found there, supposed to have been built, or at any rate completed, in the time of the Emperor Severus. The ruins at present forin nearly three sides the southern, western, and northern-of a rectangle, and it is commonly supposed that the fourth side, the eastern, facing the River Stour. has been destroyed by the giving way of the terrace on which it stood. The length of the southern wall is 260, of the western 460, and of the northern 440 feet.

The height of the walls varies from 10 to 30 feet; and their thickness, from 11 to 12 feet at the base, diminishes slightly towards the top. In the western and northern

walls are two openings which are usually denominated the decuman and postern gates. Round towers are said to have existed at the corners, and square ones at convenient distances along the walls, but no traces of them are now to be found. The walls, which are enormously strong and faced with regular courses of squared stones, consist of rows of boulders alternating with courses of bonding tiles. Nearly in the centre of the castle is the base of a cruciform building resting on a substructure of masonry, which is conjectured to have been the augurale, where the auguries were taken, and where was situated the sacellum for the reception of the ensigns.

Regarding the castles built by our Saxon forefathers our knowledge is scanty. They were probably not very numerous, and some of them were built principally of wood. Alfred, who did so much for the defence of the country, constructed several strongholds which his successors do not seem to have kept up or improved. At all events they offered little resistance to William the Norman, who, in order effectually to guard against invasions from without as well as to awe his newly-acquired subjects, imme diately began to erect castles all over the kingdom, and likewise to repair and augment the old ones. Besides, as he had parcelled out the lands of the English amongst his followers, they, to protect themselves from the resentment of the despoiled natives, built strongholds and castles on their estates, and these were multiplied so rapidly that towards the latter end of the reign of King Stephen they amounted to 1115.

As the feudal system gathered strength, the lords of castles began to arrogate to themselves a royal power, not only within their castles, but likewise in their environs, -exercising judicature both civil and criminal, coining money, and arbitrarily seizing forage and provisions for the subsistence of their garrisons, which they afterwards demanded as a right. Their insolence and oppression grew to such a pitch that, according to William of Newbury, "there were in England as many kings, or rather tyrants, as lords of castles;" and Matthew Paris emphatically styles them "nests of devils and dens of thieves." The licentious behaviour of the garrisons having at length become intolerable, it was agreed in the treaty between Stephen and Henry II., when the latter was duke of Normandy, that all the castles built within a certain period should be demolished; in consequence of which many were actually razed, but not the number stipulated.

The style of castle erected in England after the Conquest seems to have been that of buildings of a similat kind in France, such as the castles of Chamboy, Domfront, Falaise, Nogent-le-Rotrou, Beaugency, Loches, Chauvigny, and many others. Like them, the Norman castle was commonly situated on an eminence, or on the bank of a river. The whole site of the castle, which was frequently of great extent and irregular figure, was surrounded by a deep and broad ditch, called the moat or fosse, which could be easily filled with water or left dry. In some of the later castles, before the principal entrances was placed an outwork called the barbacan, which was a high wall surmounted by battlements and occasionally turrets to defend the gate and the drawbridge, which communicated therewith. The drawbridge across the moat was constructed of wood, and. by means of chains and weights, could be pulled up against the entrance, thus cutting off all communication with the outside. On the inside of the moat stood the outer bailey wall, about 8 or 10 feet thick, and from 20 to 30 feet high, surmounted by a parapet not less than 1 foot thick, with crenellated embattlements or embrasures. This parapet afforded protection to the defenders of the castle, who stood upon the wall, and through the crenelles discharged arrows,

was divided by a strong middle partition wall, in which were openings for communication with the different apartments. In this wall was the well of the castle, often of great depth, and with a shaft ascending through all the stories to the top of the keep. The several floors were of stone or wood. The basement floor contained the storerooms and the dungeon for prisoners, and had no lights from the outside. On the first floor were situated the soldiers' apartments, guard-room, &c., lighted only by small loopholes. The second floor was taken up by the baronial hal! in which the baron or governor and his retainers dined. The third floor contained, probably, the chapel and apart. ments of the governor and his family. The two upper floors were lighted by small round-headed Norman windows. Although there were unquestionably great variations in the structure of castles, yet the most perfect of them were built on the plan above described. As an illustration we give a ground-plan of Dover Castle copied by permission from The Architect.

darts, and stones at the besiegers. On the wall, and projecting out from it were built at proper distances square or round towers, sometimes called bastions, generally one story higher than the wall so as to command it. The lower story of the walls and towers was often built with a batter, or slope outwards to strengthen, and also to keep the assailants farther from, the walls. Thus the defenders were not compelled to lean far over the parapet, and expose their bodies to the archers of the enemy who were placed at a distance to guard those engaged in undermining the walls. In one of the towers and sometimes in the wall near a tower was the postern gate at a considerable distance from the ground. This gate was used for the egress of messengers during a siege. The principal entrance or main gate of the castle was of great strength, and was usually flanked with strong towers having embattled parapets. It was made of wood, cased with iron, and was rendered doubly secure by an iron portcullis which slid downwards in grooves in the masonry. Within the outer wall was a large open space or court-called the outer bailey, bayle, or ballium, in which stood commonly a church or chapel. On the inside of the outer bailey and surrounded by a ditch stood another wall and parapet, with gate and towers similar to those on the outer wall. Round the inside of this inner wall were arranged the offices for the servants and retainers, the granaries, storehouses, and other necessary buildings. These constituted the inner bailey. Within all these was the keep, built sometimes on an artificial mound. It was a large, high, square or rectangular tower more strongly fortified than any of the other parts of the castle, and was the last resort of the garrison when all the outworks were taken. Its walls, from 10 to about 20 feet in thickness at the base, and diminishing towards the top, on which was placed an embattled parapet, often admitted of chambers and staircases being constructed in them. On each side of the keep there was usually a flat Norman buttress, and at the corners were embattled turrets carried one story higher than the parapet, as may be seen in the keeps of Rochester, Newcastle, &c.

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FIG. 1.-Rochester Keep.

The entrance was on the first floor, and was reached by an open flight of steps, which could be readily defended, or by a staircase in a turret at one of the angies. The interior

FIG. 2.-Ground-Plan of Dover Castle.

Each

The towers along the outer bailey wall (such as Avranches tower, Marshall's tower, and the Constable's tower in Dover Castle) were, in the case of royal castles, each protected by men of approved fidelity and valour, to whom estates were granted on condition of their performing castle-guard. had also to keep his particular tower in repair, and supply the requisite number of men to defend it during a siege. In process of time these services were commuted for annual rents, sometimes styled wardpenny and waytfee, but commonly castle-guard rents, payable on fixed days, under prodigious penalties called sursizes. At Rochester if a man failed in the payment of his rent of castle-guard on the feast of St Andrew, his debt was doubled every tide while the payment was delayed. These were afterwards restrained by an Act of Parliament made in the reign of Henry VIII, and finally annihilated, with the tenures by knight's service, in the time of Charles II. Such castles as were private property were guarded either by mercenary soldiers, or by the tenants of the lord or owner. Windsor, Warwick, Kenilworth, Conway, Carnarvon, and many others of the later Norman castles differ from the earlier ones chiefly in the structure of the keep, which contained in some instances an open quadrangular court, and had the chapel, the hall, and the state apartments arranged round the sides. The turrets at the corners and on the walls were of various shapes, round, square, and polygonal, and had embrasures and machicolations.

The machicolations were corbelled projections, with apertures between, down which stones could be thrown, or molten lead poured, on the assailants. The principal entrances were defended by large circular towers, with machicolations over the front of the gate, and sometimes more than one portcullis.

The Scotch castles were in general square or rectangular

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