the morning. The more completely our intelligence serves us in realizing future good or bad consequences, the more do we approximate to the state of things wherein a real pleasure or a real suffering prompts the will for continuance or cessation. Modes of feeling that are in their nature little remembered in any way, or that the individual happens to have no aptitude for remembering, do not, while at a distance, count among the motives that sway the present conduct, and so we miss the good, or incur the evil, accordingly.*

4. Of grouped, or aggregated, derivative and intermediate ends.-The ultimate ends above enumerated, as found in any complete classification of our susceptibilities, and rendered operative in idea as well as in fruition, are, in our daily pursuits, frequently grouped together, and represented by some one comprehensive aim or end. The most familiar of these is the all-purchasing Money, the institution of civilized communities. So there is a general pursuit of what we term Health, implying a certain number of arrangements for keeping off the organic pains and securing the opposite condition. These aggregate ends, for the most part, set up some intermediate goal to be looked to as guiding our exertions. The labourer stepping out into the fields to commence his day's work, is not so much occupied with the ultimate sensations of existence, as with the piece of land that has to be ploughed before evening. This it is that guides his voluntary energies, and it is expedient for him to confine his attention to that

*In this act of memory, I do not refer exclusively to the realizing of the actual sensation in its fulness, but include the remembrance of the fact that we were intensely pained, and at the moment prompted to great efforts of avoidance. It is enough if we are distinctly aware of having been strongly urged to action on account of the pain; in short, to realize the volitional peculiarity belonging to it; we shall then put forth corresponding energy to prevent its recurrence. I may not remember the exact sensation of a hurt, but I remember all the labour and efforts induced for the amelioration of the suffering, and the recovery from the injury; which is quite enough for putting me on my guard for the future. Another person may forget both the pain, and the exertion and trouble occasioned; in the mind of such a one there will be little or no surviving motive power against a repetition of the accident.

particular object. The more artificial human life becomes, the more are we called upon to work for ends that are only each a step towards the final ends of all our voluntary labours. Social Security is one of those vast intermediate ends, which we have learned to value for the sake of the ultimate consequences, and strive to compass with all our energy. Each person's enterprises include a small number of comprehensive objects, representative of a much larger number of elementary objects of pain removed, and pleasure gained. Besides those already mentioned, we may specify Education, Knowledge, Professional success, Social connexion and position, Power and Dignity, and an opening for one's special tastes. Every one of those things contains under it a plurality of human susceptibilities gratified, by reference to which the will is inspired to maintain the chase. Without the ultimate elements, directly affecting the human mind, such proximates as gold, a professional avenir, the membership of a society, would have no efficacy to move a single muscle of the body; they are all a species of currency, having their equivalent in a certain amount of the agreeables of the human consciousness. Properly speaking, therefore, their motive value should exactly correspond to an accurate estimate gained from past experience, or from competent information, of the exact amount of ultimate pleasure likely to be realized, or suffering averted, through their means. This is the only measure that a rational being can set up for governing the acquisition of money, of position, of knowledge, of power, of health, or of any of the stepping-stones to these or other ends. Such would undoubtedly be the measure made use of, if one had a perfect mastery of all the preconceptions of the results in substantial enjoyments and protections, accruing in each case. But we have already seen that a very large intervention of the department of intelligence, and a considerable experience already had of good and evil, is necessary to foreshadow the future to the will with a fidelity that shall be justified when that future becomes present.

5. There is, moreover, connected with those intermediate ends, an additional circumstance that is apt to give a wrong bias to the direction of the energies. It is well known that many things sought, in the first instance, as means, come, at last, to have a force in themselves, without any regard to those ulterior consequences, but for which they would never have been taken up. The acquisition of Money being once commenced, one is apt to get a fascination for the thing itself although, strictly speaking, that has no real value. It would appear that, with the handling of the universal medium of purchase, a new susceptibility is developed, there being something in the form of the object that commends it to the mind. A latent taste is incidentally made manifest, and the gratification of it brings a new end. There is a sort of fascination in the numerical estimate of possessions, and in the consequent certainty conferred upon all our operations of gain and expenditure. The simplification of one's labours is a notable advantage of the use of a money currency. These considerations, at first secondary and incidental, may come, in particular minds, to usurp the primary regards, and throw the actual ends of money into the shade.

The transference now described is, perhaps, still better illustrated by the whole class of Formalities, which, in themselves, are absolutely nothing, but which, as means to genuine ends, are of the highest value. It so happens that many persons, once embarked in this sort of machinery, find themselves drawn to it by a special affection, something in the nature of an æsthetic liking, and carry their devotion far beyond what the original purpose would justify. The keeping of accounts is a common instance. This being an operation of trouble, we should never enter upon it, except as an aid to productive industry. There is a derived or associated importance in our minds attached to book-keeping, and, according as we value the constituent objects subserved by it, we value the process itself. Naturally, however, if we saw occasion for dispensing with such additional labour without sacrificing our chief ends,

MEANS CONVERTED INTO ENDS.

395 we should be glad to do so. Now, experience shows us that account-keepers are not always ready to abandon their operations, because there is no longer any real occasion for them. It is evident that a special liking for the machinery itself has been gradually contracted, during the time of handling the instrumentality in the furtherance of real pursuits. The avidity for the means is, therefore, no longer an accurate measure of our appreciation of the ends. The Formalities of the Law exemplify the same mental peculiarity. There grows up in the minds of lawyers and judges, and of some persons that are neither, a fascination for the technicalities of procedure, often to the sacrifice of the ends of justice, which originally dictated the whole. The forms that regulate assemblies are often pertinaciously maintained to the injury of the purpose that they serve. We hear of the spirit being made to give way to the letter, as when an ancient machinery is perpetuated that no longer fulfils the original intention, or that even has the very contrary effect. Not merely business, law, and government, but Science also presents the same inversion. An extensive symbolism has been found indispensable to the sciences, and the more so, the further they have been advanced. Mathematics is one continuous fabric of symbolical formalities. Chemistry is largely conversant with them likewise. The Natural History sciences involve a huge machinery of classification. The Logic of the schoolmen is a system of technicalities. Now, in all those sciences, there is frequently good ground for complaining of the conservation of the symbols to the detriment of the primary purpose of the science. So far has this been carried, that we find persons openly declaring a preference of the means to the ends, alleging the importance of an intellectual gymnastic that may or may not lead to the attainment of truth. I shall adduce only one other illustration of this theme, which is the acquired fondness for Experimental Manipulation, beyond all question the greatest source of accurate knowledge of nature. We constantly see the practitioners in this art spending their time in securing a precision irrelevant to the case in hand; a failing, no doubt,

on virtue's side, but still indicative of an undue attachment to what is only of the nature of means.*

6. I must not pass from this topic without noticing that the remembrance of our pains and pleasures, which regulates the voluntary activity in anticipating them as future, is very apt to cling to some associated object having a more abiding place in the memory than the feelings themselves. In recalling a violent hurt, we bring up before us the place, time, and circumstances; and these, by association, aid in reviving the idea of the pain. States of pleasure and pain by themselves are not so recoverable as the imagery of the outer world. We can remember the scenes that have passed before our eyes during a day's journey, much more easily than we can repossess ourselves of the various shades of emotion passed through during the time. It is the same with our aspirations after pleasure to come. If bent upon rising to a position of honour, we do not realize to ourselves so much the naked feelings of that position, as picture forth the pomp and circumstances of an elevated place, and infer, so to speak, the emotions of the fortunate occupant. In short, what we look forward to is not a faithfully conceived idea of the actual enjoyment that a certain situation will give, but the external appearances that meet the spectator's eye, and inflame his imagination with such feelings as he associates with that situation. This is one fruitful source of deluded and perverted activity. A false medium is interposed between us and the feelings actually to be realized in the pursuit of place, distinction, or other glitter

* We have formerly seen (Emotions, Chap. XIII. Sec. 26) in discussing the Esthetic of Utility, that operations intended purely to ward off evil consequences, sometimes assume an intrinsic interest. This is very much the case with cleanliness, which, in the first instance, aims at the removal of the offensive, but, when carried one stage higher, produces a positive effect, by converting a dull and uninteresting surface into a brilliant one.

It has often been maintained, and is probably the received opinion, that Justice and Truth are ends in themselves, that is, irrespective of their bearing on human security and happiness. For my own part, I believe that they are still of the nature of means, and in that character alone assume their momentous importance.