the tongue, and the chest, are pre-eminently voluntary in their nature, the tongue especially,-as is seen, both from the great range of their acquired effects, and from the disposition of the youngest infant to impel them copiously and variously. I rely on these considerations as explaining why the act of sucking is so soon adopted from the reflex into the voluntary, and made subject to the feelings of relish and satiety. We see from an early date that the child does not suck merely because it is put to the breast; showing that will has commenced in a decided manner, that in fact the automatic impulse is no longer the prime mover. Probably a regular course has been gone through, whereby the digestive feelings have been completely associated with the active mechanism of sucking; so that hunger brings that mechanism into play, and satiety or distaste suspends its action. We cannot directly verify the stages of the acquisition in this particular instance; at least, I cannot pretend to have done so by any specific observations of my own. The direct proof of the growth of an associating link, converting the random spontaneity into an enduring alliance of definite movements with a definite state of pleasure or pain, must be sought in more favourable cases, such as I trust will be brought to view in the course of the exposition; nevertheless, there are various aspects of the present example that furnish increased presumption on the side of the general doctrines now contended for. The stages subsequent to the very earliest are more open to observation. Thus the child at first, although able to suck when the nipple is placed in its mouth, is utterly powerless to find the breast, just as in the case of the newly-dropped lamb. After some time, we see it directing its head to the place, and applying the mouth exactly to the point of suction. A wide compass of acquisition has been gone through in the meantime. I can describe the process only, as I have already done many times over, by saying, what seems to me consistent with all the appearances, that the child makes spontaneous movements of the body, and finds that these bring it towards the breast and the nipple; that the primordial nexus supports these movements when they are felt to bring

gratification in their train ;-and that they at last become so well associated with the sensation as to be brought on at once when that is present. There is an additional element here, which I am anxious not to introduce yet, namely, the acting for a prospective pleasure, and going through a process of several steps, of which only the last yields the result sought. I prefer at present to seek instances exhibiting the volitional connexion in its simplest and most primitive condition. Afterwards the higher complications will come under review.

6. Next to sucking comes the process of Mastication. Here we have, in the first instance, the play of the tongue for rolling the morsel in the mouth. The full maturity of the will is soon arrived at in this case; the strong feeling of taste and relish on the one hand, and the peculiar readiness of the tongue to come into action, speedily develop a fixed alliance. between the two. The tentatives are accompanied with less than usual complication or ambiguity. We must needs suppose that the best of all conditions, for fostering the association of the two elements in question, is when a feeling strong and unmixed co-exists with the one single movement that immediately tells upon it, all other organs being perfectly still. The circumstance that indicates cause and effect in experimental philosophy-the isolation of the sequence—is the thing that enables the primitive volitional instinct to operate fairly, and to begin the permanent alliance which constitutes voluntary power. Now the movements of the tongue seem to be remarkably distinguished for independence or individuality. There is no other organ less disposed, either to be a follower of collateral organs, or to drag those into action with itself. Indeed, the highly endowed muscular and nervous organization of this member implies a distinction over the moving members generally, whatever may be the mode that we may adopt for expressing the superiority. Undoubtedly the supposition just made of a highly independent spontaneity,—of a momentary devotion of the central brain to stimulate some single movement of this one part,-is the very circumstance of all others to promote an alliance between such a movement,

I can

and the pleasurable state sensibly increased by it. imagine no situation more appropriate than this, and no more elementary mode of stating the ultimate fact at the basis of all volition. The child has got in its mouth a sugary morsel. If no movement of the tongue arises at that moment, as is quite possible, the morsel will simply melt away at random. No doubt every infant passes through a number of those experiences during its pre-volitional age. Should, however, an impulse arise at such a moment to elevate the tongue, so as to press the lump to the roof of the mouth, an accession of pleasure is instantly felt, which accession is the antecedent for inducing the continuance of that special movement. As I have repeatedly said, the more isolated the active impulse has been, the more unmistakeable is the conjunction. Should the child, for instance, execute at the same time some other movement by a burst of cerebral spontaneity, perhaps even more decided than the one supposed, the augmented pleasure might lead in the first instance to the continuance of that movement. It might be a movement of the fingers, or the arm, or the eyeballs. The mistaken coincidence would for a moment sustain and perpetuate the wrong impulse. But then comes in the correcting power of the situation; for the absence of any farther enhancement of the agreeable sensation would permit the false accompaniments to drop, from the want of farther encouragement, and the true cause might then make itself apparent. However this may be, I cannot hesitate to suppose that the early steps of our volitional education are very much hindered, by the occurrence of a plurality of movements in conjunction with alleviation of pain, or an increase of pleasure.

The use of the jaw in chewing is necessarily late with the human infant. This circumstance counts in favour of the easy commencement of the voluntary effort; inasmuch as practice improves all the spontaneous tendencies. When the child begins to chew, the same feeling of enhanced pleasure that promoted the activity of the tongue sustains the co-operation of the jaw, and experience cements the connexion

ACTING UNDER SWEET AND BITTER TASTES.

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between the sensation, and the movements proper to prolong and increase it. A nauseating or bitter morsel has exactly the opposite tendency, arresting and almost paralysing the concurring action of the jaw and tongue at that moment, and vehemently stimulating any other that may happen to arise of a kind to give relief. The entire process of mastication is thus an example of the spontaneous passing through the usual stages into the voluntary. The members employed have in a high measure the characteristic of individualising spontaneity, and the sensibility developed is of that strong and commanding sort which renders the experiments very telling and decided. The consequence is, that after a brief probation, marked with the usual struggles, the child enters upon the full voluntary control of the masticating organs; as soon as a morsel is felt in the mouth, it is moved about, and carried backwards, under the increasing relish, until it finally passes into the pharynx. Throughout the alimentary canal the propulsion is involuntary until the termination, when the will again comes into play. In this final act, also, we might elucidate the general principles of voluntary acquisition, all which are fully applicable to the case. The commencing helplessness, the spontaneous movements laid hold of and sustained, when happening at the right moment, the confirming of the link of association after repetition, and the fullgrown volition at last, might be all pointed out as belonging in a very manifest way to this part of our mature ability.

In these observations on the influence of the alimentary sensations, I have so far involved the sense of Taste, as to leave little to be said regarding it. Sweet and bitter tastes operate in the same way as relishes and disgusts. In addition to the exertions of the tongue and jaw now described, we acquire at a later period the more difficult act of throwing an ill-tasting substance from the mouth. Prior to the attainment, the child can do nothing but cease to masticate, and with an open wry mouth hold the morsel suspended, perhaps let it flow out of the lips, as we see constantly. It is in vain that we tell an infant to spit the thing out; we anticipate its voluntary edu

SO

cation, which has not yet reached that point. The act of spitting belongs at soonest to the end of the second year, far as my observation has gone. Demanding a complex arrangement of the mouth and tongue, coupled with a propulsive expiration, it cannot be expected to arise spontaneously for a very long time. The beginnings of our voluntary power are related to simple acts and easy arrangements, and the conditions are such as to forbid us from arriving at any complex adjustment or combination of movements at the opening of

our career.

7. The sensations of Smell contribute their quota to the elucidation of our theme. The sweet and agreeable odours prompt to the exertion for continuing the enjoyment of them, if such an exertion is once hit upon. Hence we contract the habit of snuffing the air when laden with freshness or balmy scent. This is an energy of the lungs, coupled with the closing of the mouth to confine the stream to the channel of the nose. The reinforced action of the lungs is probably one of the spontaneous discharges that come to be linked very early with the feelings that are influenced by it; we have alluded to it already in the case of relief from suffocation. If this were the only act necessary to inhale a fragrant odour, the young child, or animal, would soon have the necessary connexion established for the performance of it on the right occasion. But, as I have just been remarking, when two acts quite independent of each other must concur to an effect, the probability of their doing so at the right conjuncture is so much less as to delay the commencement of the acquisition. If there were any cause at work, besides random spontaneity, for bringing about the embrace of feelings and actions appropriate to them, these compounded movements might be initiated as quickly as the simple ones. The tardiness in their case coincides perfectly with what we should expect under a system of chance beginnings, but not with any theory that affirms the existence of a more express provision for getting the voluntary powers under way. The snuffing up of a pleasant odour would soon be attained, if the lungs alone