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I will next advert to the efficacy of Opposition, obstruction, or resistance, within certain limits, in promoting a flow of heightened energy. While an invincible resistance, as a dead wall, not merely arrests our progress, but suppresses the very attempt to proceed, the check of a smaller obstacle appears to operate physically, like a smart, in exciting the nerve currents. In the full-grown proficiency of the will, we graduate our efforts to suit the work to be done, but there would seem to be a more primitive tendency to put forth energy in encountering a not insurmountable stoppage. It may be partly a kind of reflex action, and partly the stimulus of the sudden shock, operating somewhat like a blow. The actual overcoming of resistance gives the mental elation of the sense of power, and a corresponding physical exaltation of the energies. At the stage when we can be moved with the resentment of wounded pride and thwarted aims, an unexpected opposition awakens us through this sentiment to almost any degree of violence. Whether or not these various considerations exactly square with the phenomenon, the influence of opposition encountered is a fact that goes a great way in explaining how the natural spontaneity may be worked up to energetic discharges.

for an

.9. These various circumstances prepare the way explanation of the compass and flexibility, so to speak, of the spontaneous outflow of nervous influence. We see various modes of prompting large effusions to meet those emergencies where an ordinary or average flow would be insufficient. Nor is it difficult to understand how habits may be contracted of emitting the higher discharges upon particular occasions; for this part of our constitution is as much subject to the great principle of adhesive association as any other. To bring on an active burst in the first instance, the presence of some of the powerful agents now described would be necessary; but after a time, the effect would come at the instance of some other circumstance having of itself no efficacy to exalt the active tone. The horse at first demands the spur and the whip to prepare him for a leap; by-and-bye the sight of the

barrier, or the ditch, is enough of itself to draw out an augmented stream of cerebral energy. To strike a heavy blow with a hammer implies an association between a mere ideathe breaking down of a barrier, or the driving of a bolt-and a rush of nervous energy towards the muscles of the arms and trunk; but even with the firmest association, such as is found in the educated artizan, if it is attempted in cold blood, a little time is required to work up the system to the due strength of discharge. A very sudden blow can be struck, either after being once in heat through a certain continuance, or under a passionate burst, as fright or rage. In a hand-tohand fight, for example, when the blood is up, the combatants are already under a torrent of excitement. What may be called the volitional constitution is identical with a copious central emanation of active power; the volitional acquisitions are such as connect firmly the different degrees of central discharge with the signs and signals denoting the amount called for by the various emergencies of life.

LINK OF FEELING AND ACTION.

10. The mode of operation now supposed, although, as I conceive, absolutely essential as a part, is certainly not the whole fact that we terin volition. A second element is wanting for giving direction to those spontaneous workings, in order to invest them with the character of purpose or aim, belonging to the proper actions of the will.

11. In my former volume (Instincts, § 28,) I endeavoured to find out the rudiment of the LINK BETWEEN FEELING AND ACTION, and traced it to the law that connects pleasure with increased vitality, and pain with diminished vitality-the law of Self-Conservation. From this root there are two branches, which diverge, and yet occasionally come together. One branch is the proper Emotional manifestations, the other enters into Volition.

The Emotional manifestations have been fully described. (THE SENSES AND THE INTELLECT, pp. 277 and 626, 2nd edit.)

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They consist in part of movements, of all degrees of energy; and, consequently, in them we have one link at least between Feeling and Action. A painful smart awakens us to activity; an exhilarating draught gives rise to vivacious movements, called the expression of pleasure. But these movements, while distinct from central spontaneity, are not movements of volition. Their selection follows one law, the action of the will follows another law. The most general fact of emotional selection is that stated by Mr. Herbert Spencer, namely, the natural priority of muscles small in calibre and often exercised, as in the expression of the face, the breathing, the voice, &c.; the volitional selection points to those that can heighten pleasure or abolish pain.

12. It may be demanded, whether a movement set a-going under emotional excitement is fitted for eventually coming under voluntary control. Almost all the members of the body are brought into action, in displaying the stronger degrees of emotion; the arms gesticulate in many modes, the limbs are thrown out and retracted, the trunk and head are agitated in many ways, the features are especially acted on, the voice is stimulated, the muscles of respiration are affected; in short, it would seem as if no movement were left dormant in the round of our various manifested feelings. Why, then, it may be asked, have recourse at all to the doctrine of pure spontaneity, in order to obtain a first commencement of action, in the members destined to be subjects of voluntary control? As the chief difficulty seems to be to make the muscles act anyhow at the outset, or previous to that cementing process which gives them a definite and purposed direction, it is but natural to inquire if these promptings of the emotional excitement would not furnish the needful starting-point. Thus there are two views presented of this preparatory stage in the development of volition; the one, the indeterminate spontaneity expounded above, the other the demonstrative portion of our special emotions.

Notwithstanding that this latter hypothesis provides one veritable origin of movements, I still think it necessary to

recognise the other and more primordial source, namely, the spontaneous occurrence of central discharges independent of emotional excitement. In support of this view, I refer in the first place, to the proofs already adduced for the fact of spontaneity, amounting to a force of argument not to be set aside. We have direct and sufficient evidence, that there is such a thing as a tendency to put forth muscular power, in the absence of any emotional wave whatsoever; and this being a genuine and distinct fact of our constitution, we shall find in it a more suitable starting-point for the will than in the other class of movements.

If an additional argument were necessary, I might recur to a circumstance already insisted on, as appertaining to those movements that are developed into volitions; namely, the need of an isolated prompting in the first instance, as distinguished from an aggregate prompting. It is the character of an emotional stimulus to impart movement to a number of organs at once; but there seems no possibility of initiating voluntary control, unless we can catch an opportunity of a member moving by itself. We have seen that this is the distinction of the fore-finger, and of several other parts; but the concurrent stimulation of many organs at the same moment, which is the peculiarity of an emotional wave, makes the feelings a bad school for beginning the work of voluntary ascendancy over every separate individual member of the active system.

13. This preliminary question being disposed of, I turn to the second, or volitional branch of the Law of Conservation (see Instincts, §§ 28-31). We suppose movements spontaneously begun, and accidentally causing pleasure; we then assume that with the pleasure there will be an increase of vital energy, in which increase the fortunate movements will share, and thereby increase the pleasure. Or, on the other 'hand, we suppose the spontaneous movements to give pain, and assume that, with the pain, there will be a decrease of energy, extending to the movements that cause the evil, and thereby providing a remedy. A few repetitions of the for

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tuitous concurrence of pleasure and a certain movement, will lead to the forging of an acquired connection, under the law of Retentiveness or Contiguity, so that, at an after time, the pleasure or its idea shall evoke the proper movement at once. This is the thesis to be made good by a full detail of examples, in the two following chapters. Except in perhaps a very few instances, (which are our special instincts, more numerous in the brutes), there is no original provision in our mental system for singling out the exact movements requisite to promote pleasure and abate pain. The chief foundations of the superstructure I conceive to be, (1) Spontaneity, (2) Self-Conservation, and (3) Contiguous Adhesion or Retentiveness. The first beginnings of our volitional education are of the nature of stumbling and fumbling, and all but despairing hopelessness. Instead of a clear and distinct curriculum, we have to wait upon the accidents, and improve them when they come.

14. Let us now attend more particularly to the operation of pleasures and pains in stimulating activity for ends, in other words, volition. We find the assumed primordial tendencies at work all through life, and in that circumstance we have the best proof of the doctrine that assumes them.

And first of Pleasure. It is known that a delight tasted urges us to continue and add to it, and that without deliberation or delay. Approaching an agreeable warmth, when chilly, we find ourselves giving way to an immediate impulse; we do not wait for the formalities supposed to attend a decision of the will: it takes an effort on our part to resist the movement so long as the pleasure is increasing. An equally convincing example is seen in the act of eating. The taste of food, by an immediate response, adds energy to mastication; the relish of extreme hunger conjoined with a savoury morsel operates with a species of fury. So in any other sense. The turning of the eyes to a light is a remarkable instance; the attraction for a flame is at work from the first dawn of volition and never ceases. Humanity seems to share in the fascination of the moth. In the pleasures of children, we see how strongly they are drawn after a tasted delight,