as either barbarous or civilized, but are rather semi-barbarous.

Such a nation are the Turks of Europe, who have many marks of civilization; as, for instance, they have a general sense of justice, much intelligence, some books, many ingenious manufactures, considerable commerce, and a settled government. But they are still destitute of courts of justice, which, in general, protect life and property. Might is too often the rule of right; woman is the slave of man; the office-holder is above the citizen; the sultan and his favorites may trample on justice with impunity.

Nearly the same may be said of Egypt, Persia, and most of the nations of India. In all these, there is a defective morality, a loose state of public opinion, a want of justice in private dealings, and an insecurity of life, liberty and property.

The civilized state does not necessarily exclude tyranny and oppression, for among some of the civilized nations of Europe, as Russia, Spain, and Austria, there is much of both. Nor does the civilized state necessarily include a system of government which distributes equal justice to all; which places the poor on a level with the rich, and the holder of office on the same footing as the citizen. Most, or all the governments of Europe, exhibit some defects in these respects.

Civilization implies a state of advancement towards perfection in human society. All that tends to make a people wise, happy, free and prosperous, tends to raise them in the scale of civilization. All that tends to make a people less wise, less happy, less free, or less prosperous, tends to sink them in the scale of civilization.

In fixing the comparative degree of civilization to which any country is entitled, we have to consider the situation of the whole people in respect to wisdom, happiness, freedom and prosperity. Judging by this rule, we may claim the first rank for our wn country, and after this, England, France, Holland, Belgium, and Prussia. The other nations of Europe may be ranked as follows: the German nations generally; the Swedes, the Swiss, Danes, Spaniards, Italians, Greeks, Russians, and Turks.

SOCIETY is a collection of individuals, united by certain ties or obligations. A family is a society, united by the ties or obligations. of parents to the

children, and children to the parent. These ties and obligations are founded in the best good of the whole family: that is, the parents are bound to fulfil certain duties, and the children to fulfil certain duties, because the best good of all is concerned.

Thus any number of individuals, united by certain ties, constitute society; but a society may be instituted for particular purposes and of a limited nature. An insurance company is a society, for special objects, and its obligations are restricted to these.

Civil society is that of the state, in which all the people are united under a government for the best good of all. This civil society, constituting the state, is society of the highest and most important kind, because it involves the happiness of all, and reaches every interest and transaction of life.

The obligations of civil society, or obligations to the state, are therefore deserving of great attention, because they relate to the happiness of the whole nation, and to all the interests of every individual.

Thus, in all the several conditions in which mankind are to be found, whether in a savage, barbarous, or civilized state, we observe three things-where several people live together, there is society; and where there is society there is government, and where there is government there is a multiplied system of obligations imposed upon all the members and subjects of it.

If a man lives alone upon an island, or in any other situation where his actions have no influence on others, then he is a solitary, not a social

being; but the moment he lives with another, society begins, and mutual obligations follow. He is no longer independent and at liberty to act for himself alone, but he is bound by the great rule, "Do to another as you would have another do to you." When a government is established, civil society begins, and the duties and obligations are extended to the whole community.

CHAPTER VII.

Individual Property. ·

I HAVE already said that in some countries property is held in common; there is no distribution of it to individuals: the idea of mine and thine does not exist. In this state of society there is never any advance in civilization: the people are always in a savage state.

As society advances, the custom prevails for an individual to claim as his own, what he acquires by his toil, his enterprise, or his ingenuity. The advantages of this are soon seen; for, stimulated to exertion by knowing that what he acquires he can have to his own use and benefit, each individual is induced to be industrious, and to put forth his best efforts.

The consequence of this is, that property is increased, the various arts are promoted, the comforts and necessaries of life are multiplied. Thus the state is enriched, and the whole community is benefited. In order to obtain the full advantages

of this system, laws are enacted to secure to each individual the acquisition of his labor, skill, and exertion; and a community is usually happy, prosperous and civilized, in proportion as his acquisitions are thus secure.

On the contrary, a community is usually poor, rude and uncivilized, in proportion as the acquisitions of the people are insecure; for if a person knows that the fruits of his exertions may be taken away by the government, or the privileged classes, or the powerful, he is discouraged, and will usually make little effort to secure property beyond the mere wants and necessities of life.

Such is the importance, therefore, of security of property to individuals, that, in civilized countries, by far the largest portion of the laws, and the most important functions of government, have this for their object and end.

A right of a man to the property he acquires, involves other rights, such as liberty to employ his time, thoughts, and faculties as he pleases: where property is secure, therefore, freedom is secure. But of this topic I shall have occasion to speak hereafter.