When William the Conqueror came to the throne the Witenagemote merged into the Great Council. The members of this body were not representatives elected by the people, as in the Witenagemote, but every man who held land under the King had a right to a seat. But as only great land owners, like the barons and bishops, would attend a national council, these at length became the exclusive members. Such was the composition of the Great Council until June 15, 1215, when King John reluctantly signed the Magna Charta at Runnymede. It was then that the principle of representation was revived. Commoners, as well as nobles and churchmen, were given seats in the national assembly. At first all these classes sat as one house; but as there was much difference of rank and station the commoners formed another house-the House of Commons. The nobles ("lords temporal") and the higher clergy (“lords spiritual") thenceforth constituted the House of Lords. These changes were completed in the fourteenth century.

3. The House of Lords.-The membership of the House of Lords consists of English hereditary peers (dukes, marquises, earls, viscounts, and barons) and of the two archbishops and a number of bishops; of Scottish peers elected by the whole body of Scotch peers for the term of Parliament; of Irish peers elected by the peers of Ireland to sit for life; and of four judges appointed for life, known as Lords of Appeal in Ordinary. The total number of Lords-temporal and spiritual-is about 600. Peers can be created at will by the Crown. Twothirds of the present number were created in the nineteenth century.

The House of Lords, like the King, has much more

nominal than real power. It takes part in every act of legislation; but its dissent from a bill may be overruled, if the House of Commons passes the bill again within two years. The House of Lords is also the supreme court of appeal in England; but this function is exercised by the Lord Chancellor, speaker of the House of Lords, assisted by the Lords of Appeal in Ordinary, and other Lords who are especially learned in the law.

4. The House of Commons. The members of the House of Commons are elected by counties, boroughs, and universities, in England, Scotland, and Ireland. The total number since 1885 has been 670, of which England elects about seventy-five per cent. The term is seven years; but no House of Commons has ever lived so long, for it has always been dissolved before the term expired. Any subject over twenty-one years of age is eligible to election, except clergymen, government contractors, sheriffs, English and Scottish peers (certain Irish peers are), bankrupts, and elective officers. The members cannot resign their seats except when appointed to a position of honor and profit under the Crown, or are otherwise. disqualified.

5. The Sessions of Parliament.-There is at least one session a year, which lasts from the middle of February to the middle of August. The daily sessions begin at 4 P.M. in the House of Commons and at 5 P.M. in the House of Lords, and frequently extend far into the night. They are practically night sessions. The Commons organize by electing one of their members Speaker. The choice must be nominally approved (which is always done) by the Crown. The Speaker does not debate, but

simply presides, and no matter what his party affiliations are, his decisions must be absolutely non-partisan. In case of a tie he must give the casting vote.

The House of Lords is permanently organized. The Lord Chancellor is Speaker by virtue of his office, and is therefore not chosen by the Lords, but by the Sovereign. He is not necessarily a peer, but if he is, he may leave the chair and speak. He has no casting vote; if the Lords are tied the question is lost.

6. The Cabinet, Its Origin.-The Cabinet may be traced back to the Great Council, the successor to the Witenagemote (see p. 131). As that body met but three times a year, and at first was not composed of the same persons from year to year, the King kept about him constantly a select number of that body, an "inner circle," for a permanent council. After Parliament, with its Lords and Commons, had succeeded the Great Council (see p. 131) another "inner circle," called the Privy Council, whose members were bound to the King by an oath of secrecy and fidelity, was organized in the reign of Henry VI. But the expansion of the kingdom, in the course of time, made the Privy Council again too large for dispatch and secrecy. Hence a third "inner circle,” the Cabinet, was organized-so called because the King met its members in a small room, a "cabinet." During the reign of the Stuarts the Cabinet began to draw to itself much executive power (see p. 130) and displaced the Privy Council altogether. With the advent of William and Mary it assumed the position in the government which it now occupies.

7. The Cabinet at Present. The Cabinet always consists of at least eleven ministers: the First Lord of the

Treasury, the Lord Chancellor, the Lord President of the Council, the Lord Privy Seal, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, the five Secretaries of State, and the First Lord of the Admiralty. The Prime Minister is generally the First Lord of the Treasury. To these are added a number of others. Some of the eleven enumerated date from the time of the Great Council (see p. 131).

The Cabinet is of the same political complexion as the majority in the House of Commons. At the same time that its members administer the executive departments they frame and introduce all important bills and push these bills through Parliament, under the lead of the Prime Minister. The "Opposition" party also has its leader and tries to defeat the measures of the Ministry. Should the "Opposition" succeed in defeating an important bill or in passing a vote of censure, the Ministry has a choice between two courses. If it concludes that it has not "fallen" on account of the disapproval of the people at large, it may advise the Sovereign to dissolve Parliament and order the election of a new House of Commons. If the election is favorable to the existing Cabinet it remains in office—if not, the members resign forthwith. If the Cabinet resigns without a dissolution of Parliament a new Cabinet is appointed from the party which has shown itself strongest in the House of Commons.

When the Sovereign has to appoint a new Cabinet he sends for the acknowledged leader of the party which has the majority in the House of Commons, and asks him to form a Ministry. He makes up a list from among the members of both Houses of Parliament, and recommends them to the King for appointment. The Ministers selected from the House of Commons must then resigu

their seats and seek a reëlection. This election is a mere formality.

8. The Judiciary.-The English judiciary consists of the House of Lords as a court of last resort; the Court of Appeal; the High Court of Justice, acting in three divisions, the Chancery, the King's Bench, and the Probate, Divorce, and Admiralty Division. County courts, whose jurisdiction extends not over counties but much smaller districts, and other local courts, administer justice in petty cases.

9. The Constitution.-England has no written constitution. Her constitution was not made at one time and drawn up in articles and sections. It consists of long-established precedent, of the acts of Parliament, of great documents like the Magna Charta and the Bill of Rights, and of rules made by the courts of law. Hence Parliament may in theory change the constitution by a mere bill. Whenever a law is repealed the constitution is amended by the repeal. Parliament, not the constitution, as in our Government, is supreme. Parliament could abolish the Crown, the House of Lords, the House of Commons, and even itself. No court in England can declare a law unconstitutional, for every law is a part of the constitution.

10. Local Government of England and Wales.-For purposes of local government, England and Wales are divided into counties, boroughs, urban and rural sanitary districts, poor-law parishes, unions, highway parishes, and school districts. In all of these the people have the advice and coöperation of the central Government, but are not controlled by it as in France (see p. 140.)

At the head of the county is the Lord Lieutenant, who