Southern vote which made it possible for Buchanan to defeat both Fillmore and Fremont for the presidency. The large vote which Fillmore did obtain in the South, in spite of the supposed anti-slavery position of the party, was, without doubt, an expression of the feeling in the South against the idea of secession.1

Another cause lay in the fact that the National Council had abolished the secret character of the order. While this had been maintained the organization had been able to retain its unity, but as soon as abandoned its opponents secured control of the party, broke it into factions, and destroyed it. Then, too, the defeat of the American candidate for Governor in Virginia by the Democrats in 1855 had fallen like a bomb shell among the Native Americans. Many of its members lost heart and returned to their old alliances. Among the Democrats, however, the victory created the greatest of exultation and gave them renewed courage with which to enter the campaign of 1856.

To some, perhaps, it may seem that the American Party had lived and died in vain. But such was not the case. It did a great good in hastening the cultivation of a broader and more liberal American spirit among the foreigners. It hastened their Americanization. It is also true that, at the time of the party's origin and greatest strength, the Catholic Church was taking an active part in politics and in other matters equally far removed from the proper sphere of the Church. But as a result of the agitation of the Native Americans, the Catholics "made haste to disclaim with the greatest vehemence, the evil designs and possibili

1 Macey's Political Parties in the United States, p. 226.

ties attributed to them. And more than one distinguished churchman said that, if necessary, they would themselves take up arms to meet the papal invader on the shore, and to repel him with as much vigor as if he were but an ordinary foreign enemy. . . . Catholics, both lay and cleric, went out of their way to demonstrate their love of American institutions, and their pride in American citizenship. Bishops positively forbade that they should be addressed by the title of lord' and 'lordship' common in European countries."1

To one who scans the political and economic world at the present day and sees the buying and selling of foreign votes, the pandering to the immigrants by the distribution of political patronage, the lax enforcement of the naturalization laws, and many other similiar practices the need of a little of that Native American spirit is apparent.

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

MADISON

IRA CROSS

♦ McGlynn's Know Nothingism, New and Old, in the North American Review, Vol, CXLV, p. 193.

FEDERAL AND STATE AID TO EDUCATION

IN IOWA

INTRODUCTION

A glance at the educational writings of the

past few years will show that more and more attention is being paid to the financial problems of education. That this is the case needs no apology. It is not an indication that the minds of educators are becoming sordid and mercenary, but simply that educational thinkers are becoming more fully awake to the fact that among the important-indeed, the essential -factors in the successful administration of any educational institution are the factors pertaining to its financial support. While the making of money should not be the end and aim of any educational institution, yet without funds and a measure of wisdom in their administration an educator, even with the loftiest ideals and ambitions, will usually not be able to conduct a school successfully. Buildings must be erected and equipped; heat, light, and laboratory and library supplies must be provided; salaries of teachers must be paid; and for many other purposes funds are essential. The amount, sources, care, and expenditure of funds should receive even more attention than is now being given to these matters. The successful administrator of educational affairs must have not only high ideals as to the ends to be striven for in his work, but also ability to obtain, care for, and use funds for the attainment of such ends. Studies of various phases of school financing in the differ

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Such

ent States of the Union may be of much value. studies should be made in at least a few States in which are found methods characteristic of a group of States. For example, in the matter of the care and disposal of its Federal land grants Iowa may be taken as a type of certain States of the Mississippi Valley. On the other hand, other States of the Middle West have treated their lands received from such sources by methods considerably different from those used by Iowa. A comparative study of the laws of the various States is profitable not only from the standpoint of historical interest, but also for its suggestive value in the newer States where school lands are yet largely unsold.

A complete understanding and appreciation of present conditions in regard to almost any enterprise depends in a large measure upon a knowledge of the evolution and growth of that enterprise. Accordingly, the larger part of this study of Federal and State Aid to Education in Iowa is historical. The concluding chapter is devoted to a brief comparison of some Iowa conditions with those of a few other States.

The present paper on Federal and State Aid to Education in Iowa has grown out of the first of a series of studies recently made and still being carried on by the writer and by other graduate students in the Department of Education at The State University of Iowa. Several other discussions of various phases of educational finance are to follow. This paper was presented to the Faculty of the Graduate College of The State University of Iowa, and upon the recommendation of Professor Frederick E. Bolton, Head of the

Department of Education, was accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

Acknowledgments and sincere thanks are due to Professor Bolton for numerous and helpful suggestions in this study, and in a far deeper sense for a view of the field. and possibilities of education which have been chiefly instrumental in forming the writer's determination to devote his life to educational work. Acknowledgment is due Professor Benjamin F. Shambaugh, Head of the Department of Political Science in The State University of Iowa, who has kindly assisted in securing access to much of the material used and in editing and preparing the manuscript for press.

the

FEDERAL AID TO EDUCATION IN IOWA

FEDERAL LAND GRANTS

From an early date the Federal government has contributed materially to the encouragement and development of public schools and of other educational agencies. When the nation was still in its infancy, before the adoption of the Federal Constitution, the spirit which has resulted in such activity was already manifest. In the days when the supreme law of the land was embodied in the Articles of Confederation the central government was already interesting itself in laying foundations for the education of the masses. The Congress, engrossed as it was with the solution of an almost countless number of problems growing out of its own lack of power, of inter-State struggles, and of dangers from foreign forces, yet kept in view the idea