had ever previously accomplished, which is, of itself, sufficient to throw an undying lustre round his name.

On the 13th December, 1577, he put to sea, and, after running along the coast of Brazil, and entering the Rio de la Plata, he passed the Straits of Magellan, and entered the South Seas on the 25th September of the ensuing year, where he seized and plundered every Spanish ship he met. Running up the coast of North America to the 48th degree, he endeavoured to discover a passage home by the north of California; but, disappointed in this attempt, he landed, and called the country New Albion, taking possession of it in the name of Queen Elizabeth. On the 20th September, 1579, he again set out for England; but his was too restless a spirit to bear the sameness of retracing his steps, and, instead of passing home by the straits, he steered for the Moluccas. One reason for this passage was, his fear of being attacked by the Spaniards while returning by the American coast, and also the violent storms which are so prevalent in the southern seas at a late season. In November, be came in sight of the islands above mentioned. On the 10th December, he made Celebes, where his ships ran among rocks, and only got clear with great exertions. After touching at Java, and doubling the Cape of Good Hope, he watered on the coast of Guinea, and, on the 25th of September, arrived in Plymouth, making, in whole, a voyage of two years and nine months.

On his return to England, he did not meet with that reception which his great services led him to expect. Whilst some applauded his actions, others considered him as little better than a pirate. Majesty itself seemed to have been at a loss for some time into which scale she would throw her preponderating weight; for it is not until the following spring we see Queen Elizabeth countenancing Captain Drake, by visiting him on board his own ship, on which occasion she conferred the honour of knighthood upon him, at the same time applauding his achievements, and commanding his ship to be kept as a monument of his own and his country's glory.

In 1585, he commanded an expedition to the West Indies, and captured several Spanish towns. In 1587, when Philip of Spain was concentrating all his naval force, in order to form the Armada, Sir Francis Drake was sent to scour the narrow seas. He proceeded as far as Lisbon, where, learning that a large fleet was detained in the Bay of Cadiz, on its way to join the Armada, he determined to attack it. Entering the harbour, he destroyed and burned the greater part of the shipping. Proceeding thence to Cape St Vincent, he destroyed all the ships on the coast; he also challenged the Marquis of Santa Cruz, who lay with a large fleet close by the land, to stand out to sea and fight him, but the marquis was too cautious. The same year we find him as persevering on land as at sea, for he proposed and executed a plan for conducting a stream in a direct line to Plymouth, by a course of eight miles, which had originally taken a circuitous route of twenty. In the succeeding year he was appointed vice-admiral of the fleet prepared to resist the Spanish Armada, where he acted with his former courage, and had the good fortune to capture a galleon, commanded by Don Pedro de Valdez, which had on board the greatest part of the money in the fleet. He was next year appointed joint commander with Sir John Norris, of an expedition to Portugal, intended to restore Don Antonio, king of that country. A quarrel took place between Sir John, who commanded the land forces, and the admiral; the former wishing to land the troops at the Groyne, whilst Sir Francis maintained that sailing direct to Lisbon was the only means at all likely to restore the sovereign of Portugal. Unfortunately, Sir John Norris carried his point; the troops were landed, and lost so much time, that when they came before Lisbon, they found the Spaniards fully prepared to receive them. Drake attempted to compensate as far as lay in his power for this failure, by scouring

the coast, and capturing sixty sail of ships, laden with ammunition and supplies of corn, and 150 pieces of cannon.

His next service, which proved fatal to him, was performed in company with Sir John Hawkins-the expedition against Nombre de Dios. The Spaniards, having this time got the start of the English, arrived unchallenged in Spain, with the exception of one vessel, which had sustained some injury, and was detained at Port Rico. The admirals, instead of capturing it, made an unsuccessful attempt on the Canaries, and afterwards put in to Dominica, where they spent too much time in refitting; for, when they returned, they found their intended prize borne away under a strong convoy; and one of Sir John | Hawkins's ships, falling out of her course, was taken by the Spanish fleet. This cross-grained accident is said to have grieved that commander so much, as to cause his death in a few hours. The day following his death, Drake made a desperate attack upon Porto Rico, in which he gained little advantage. He next steered to the Spanish main, took the town Rio de la Hacha, burned Santa Martha, and finally attacked Nombre de Dios, which shared the same fate. It was here, from fatigue and over-exertion of a body unable to support the toils imposed on it by the mind, that Sir Francis Drake caught a lingering fever, which proved fatal on the 28th January, 1594. Thus ended the career of one of the greatest men of an age distinguished for great men. In person, Sir Francis Drake was of a low, robust stature, firmly knit, of a fair complexion, with large clear eyes, and a fresh and cheerful countenance.

THE WALCHEREN EXPEDITION. By a Medical Officer.

THE LANDING.

THE morning of the 7th of August found us still at anchor with the rest of the fleet. The forenoon was spent in eyeing anxiously the banks of the island, which were beautifully wooded. Some strong batteries were seen near us. Near one of them we observed several caps-probably of some brave fellows who had died attacking or defending it. At one o'clock, the master of the transport came on board, with the information that we were to proceed to the island of South Beveland. In less than a quarter of an hour, we were under weigh, and standing up the river, passing every moment numerous vessels with or without troops. The banks on either side were neatly formed of piles of cut turf. About three o'clock we anchored off the village of Armuyden.

In the course of the evening I landed, in company with some of the officers. The first place we came to was a farm-house, where we purchased some milk. Both interior and exterior displayed the greatest possible cleanliness, order, and precise neatness-the result, evidently, of the most assiduous industry. The fields in the neighbourhood were banked and drained-covered with rich pasturages, intermingled with excellent crops of wheat. The grain was evidently over-ripe. The neighbourhood of war seemed to have slackened the industry of the peasants. Altogether, the island, although flat in the extreme, possessed considerable beauty and richness, enhanced, no doubt, in our eyes, by the contrast it afforded to the dull expanse of water and sand-banks, within which we had for some time been confined.

In the village of Armuyden, every shop and the lowest house exhibited the same picture of cleanliness which I have attempted to describe above. Every thing seemed to have a place, and to be kept in it. The people were civil, but did not fail, on that account, to take ample advantage of our ignorance, and the difference of our coin, which they received reluctantly, and much below its value. The family groups reminded us forcibly of

the old Flemish pictures-time has changed the people as little as the fruits and trees around them. The women exhibited a prodigious a posteriori developement, produced by immense piles of petticoats, and rendered more conspicuous by the immense length and straightness of their waists. The poorest of them wore brooches and ear-rings of gold, ostentatiously displayed, although the ears themselves were carefully concealed under their close caps. The most ludicrous part of the scene was the appearance of the children. The girls were equipped exactly like the women, the boys like the men. Many of the latter, with huge hats on their heads, and pipes in their mouths, strutted about with all the gravity of Lilliputian burgomasters.

We learned from an officer of the Commissariat, whom we met in the village, that no offensive measures had been commenced against Flushing beyond the construction of some batteries. Several sorties had been made on the part of the enemy, with a view to interrupt and destroy the works. He represented the loss sustained at landing upon Walcheren as trifling. At nightfall, we returned to the ship, Antæus-like, refreshed by having again.come in contact with mother Earth.

Next day we landed again upon another foraging expedition. All things presented themselves to us in precisely the same light that they did the day before, and would have done so in that changeless country had we continued to revisit them daily for years. The men were stout, and several of them good-looking-more so than the fair sex, who had an unwieldy and deformed appearance beneath their sevenfold petticoats. My idea of their cleanliness was increased by my inspection of the poorest houses, many of which I purposely entered. I felt myself, however reluctantly, obliged to confess that the lower classes appeared in every respect more comfortable than those of my native country. They were more industrious, with more method and order; and, what was of great importance, were infinitely more sober. The over-ripeness of the crops was the only symptom of the stagnation of labour. In every other respect they were going about their business, with as much phlegm as if they had not been aware that two mighty nations were among them about to join battle for the mastery of their land. With us, their invaders, they used no ceremony, fleecing us with the utmost license of extortion. Indeed, by their manner of treating us, you might have fancied we had only come down for a season's plucking at some fashionable watering-place. If we may credit reports, the French did not understand this style of joking.

All this while we were, although in the very centre of military operations, entirely ignorant of what was going on around us. We learned from rumour that a land. ing had been effected at Den Haak with little loss-that Middleburg, the capital of Walcheren, had submitted without a struggle that old Mounet, the commander of Flushing, when summoned, had declared his intention of burying himself and his army under its ruins-that our staff corps were near us preparing fascines to be sent to Flushing, while the garrison of that town had made a sortie upon our works, in which they were repulsed with loss-and that the Duke of Dantzig was at Antwerp with an army of observation. These reports proved afterwards to have been tolerably near the truth, but our uncertainty, in the meanwhile, kept us fretful and un

easy.

We learned this day, that the morrow had been fixed for our disembarkation, but no particulars. At ten o'clock evening, the ship moved up towards our landing point, but still no precise orders had been received. Our colonel had been sailing through the whole squadron, but had not been able to find any thing like a general officer from whom he might have received orders or advice.

The morning of the 9th was a morning of much bustle. It was uncommonly fine, the air mild, the sky unclouded, the water like a mirror. The banks, and general

appearance of the shore, were promising. The British uniform was seen here and there among the trees. Boats were putting off from some of the ships with soldiers in them. Horses were hoisting out of some transports— which had been run aground to enable them to reach the shore more easily swimming, or struggling in the mud which lay between the vessels and the green banks. The men of those regiments which had received no orders to disembark, embraced the opportunity of purifying themselves, and the water around us was filled with bathers and swimmers, vying with each other in feats of activity. At last, the order that our regiment should disembark immediately, arrived, and was joyfully obeyed. It fell to my lot to go round the various transports, on board of which our regiment had been embarked, in order to collect the sick left behind into one ship. I was thus the last to get on shore; my adventures upon reaching it shall be narrated in my next communication.

THE TRADE" IN THE TWELFTH, THIRTEENTH, AND FOURTEENTH CENTURIES. EVERY reader of a Literary Journal must be aware that there is only one "Trade" in the world—that which deals in his favourite delicacies, books. To us it appears strange, that our brothers of the goose-quill, who devote so much of their time to furbishing up and bringing before the public forgotten tales of bullet-headed soldiers, crazy mariners, and mouldy beauties, should pass over in silence the history of those who have devoted their energies to this important profession in the olden time. Even Dibdin is silent on this subject-the Bannatyne and the Maitland know it not. Having stumbled upon some account of the arrangements of the trade in books from the 11th to the 15th century in France and Italy, in the pages of a learned German Professor, we proceed to "scale" his wisdom a little among our readers. Some of them, we know, will, for the entire affection they bear to every thing connected with letters, take it well at our hands.

We arrange our notices under the four heads of :Transcribers: the material upon which they wrote: dealers in books: and the prices of books.

The business of transcriber was an important one, whereever the presence of esteemed teachers and a concourse of students created a demand for books. At Bologna the number of persons devoted to this occupation was very great, and among them were many females. The trades standing most nearly in connexion with it were the illuminators, correctors, paper-makers, and bookbinders. With regard to the last-mentioned, the law was so suspicious as to provide that they should find caution for the safe return of the books left with them; a suspicion indicating that their profession was considered merely mechanical. Rich individuals spent immense sums in the ornaments of their books; and so early as the 12th and 13th centuries, loud complaints were made at Paris and Bologna of the excess to which their vanity transported them in this particular. The frequent disputes on the score of priority elicited ordinances in most of the Universities, declaring that no student should enter into a contract with any transcriber who was at the time working for another. Nay the student was obliged to take the transcriber's oath on this point before he concluded his bargain with him. The latter, if he perjured himself, was expelled, and so was every student who was found to have further dealings with him. All trifling commissions, however-all such, for example, as could be executed within any period short of ten days-took precedence of older ones requiring more time.

The materials most commonly made use of in the 12th and 13th centuries, and even in the 14th, were parchment, and a kind of paper made of cotton. The employment of the latter substance dates so far back as the 9th; paper

facturer of parchment

made of linen did not come into use till about the latter end of the 14th century. The Papal bulls ceased to be written upon Papyrus in the course of the 11th century; the use of it in common life had been previously abandoned. Of all these materials, parchment was the greatest favourite. There was a law in Bologna (apparently meant to prevent a scarcity of it) which enacted that evet at least that at least two-thirds of all the parchment made by him should be of the kind employed in making books. The terms employed in all contracts with transcribers, to express the size of the books, are two Quaternus and Pecia. Quaternus denotes four sheets, folded one within another into eight leaves a very indefinite expression, when we take into consideration the varying size of the sheet and of the letters. Pecia (or petia), denotes, at least as it is used in the 15th century, at Padua and Bologna, a definite measurement; namely, sixteen columns, each containing sixty-two lines, and every line thirty-two words. Now, as every page contained, in general, two columns, the Pecia consisted, in all probability, of f of four leaves in other words, it was half of a Quaternus. We are thus enabled to obtain a more precise notion of the bulk of the latter.

16 17

The circumstances of the period were ere unfavourable to any trade in books approximating in the most distant degree to that of our days: it was, however, by no means so inconsiderable as one is at first tempted to imagine. New books were, it is true, only only made to order: whoever wanted a copy of a work, must make his bargain with a transcriber. But there were a class of men called Stationarii, who kept a stock of books on hand, with a view to lend them for hire to the transcribers. We shall now lay before our readers such incidental notices of these persons as occur in the histories of their time.

The stationarii are mentioned in the statutes of Bologna in the year 1259. They are enjoined to keep correct

which is not to exceed one-sixtieth of the price. A law, passed in 1323, distinguishes the trade of book-lender (stationarius) from, that of the commission salesman (librarius.) The former are forbidden to sell books without an express permission from the University; while to the latter the trade is left quite free. A statute, published in 1342, ordains, that members of the University shall pay a lower commission than strangers; and prohibits the purchase of books by the librarii, unless their sale has been previously announced for four successive days in the

་་ ་ ་

public hall of the Dominicans,, sildng surgos Very exaggerated notions are ente are entertained respecting the price of books in the middle ages. The mistake has originated in an in an impression that all the books of that period were as richly ornamented, as some specimens which have survived the dilapidations of time. But there are thousands of MSS. still extant, which are sufficiently unpretending in their exterior, Nay, the fact that there were so many trades exclusively devoted to the manufacturing of books, shows that they could be neither such rarities, nor so dear as has been supposed. Certainty on this point can only be attained by collecting from different Sources many prices of books during the middle ages, and striking an an average, But no antiquary having as yet directed his investigations this way, we are not in possession of a sufficient number of facts. Paris and Bologna, as the towns in which there was the most lively trade in books during the middle ages, ought to furnish sufficient data in their records One e, or two facts upon which we have casually stumbled may here be stated. In the statutes of Bologna, the scholar or transcriber who lost a pecia of any volume in his possession, was amerced in half a lira, (or 6s, ;) but as this included both penalty and restitution, the probability is, that the price of a pecia did not amount to so much. In 1279, a manuscript bible was purchased in Bologna for 80 lire, (or L.48.) In 1262, a cloister in Volterna received a present of law lire (or L.108, 12s.) Among these was a copy of

university; nor to raise their hire nor to enter into any combination with the doctors (teachers), to substitute new glosses for such as were already received. In a statute of the year 1289, these injunctions are renewed, with the exception of the last The statutes of the Bolognese University are very explicit on the head of the stationarii. They were obliged to take an oath, de fideli, and find securities. Their books were subjected to the inspection of the peciarii; six students annually elected, three from the Italians and three Tramontanes. Every stationarius was obliged to have by him copies of the works enumerated in a specific list of 117. The remuneration for lending these specified, and seems to have varied according to the size, the importance, and the scarcity of the work. This business was followed at Bologna by the University beadles, but not exclusively by them. More than one instance occurs of a professor who did not scruple to take this means of increasing his income.

sius's Notes, valued at 3 lire, (or L.1, 16s.) These prices are somewhat higher than we are now accustomed to, but not so much so as is generally imagined.

LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES OF EDINBURGH.

SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES.

Another occupation of the Bolognese stationarü, was the sale of books upon commission. There is a city statute of the year 1259 still extant, forbidding them to take a higher commission than had previously been customary. The statutes of the University fix the commis sion at one-fortieth of the fifice when that is under sixty lire; if the price be higher, only one-sixtieth is allowed. The same laws forbid the purchase of books with a view to making profit by their sale; and ordain in general, that no one shall presume to buy books, except he intend to use them himself, or take up the trade of stationarius. Analogous precepts are contained in the statutes of Vercelli and Modena.

At Paris, the trade of lending books to transcribers, and that of selling them upon commission, seems, as at Bologna, to have been originally united in the same person, to whom sometimes the name of stationarius, and sometimes that of librarius, is given. A statute of 1275 ordains, that the purchaser of a book shall pay the commission,

several donations received since THE Curator announced" the last meeting, particularly a number of Roman, Consular, and Imperial coins, presented by Mrs Thomson Bonar, and a copy of a work lately published at Stockholm, in lithography, with thirty plates, describing the Cathedral church of Upsal, presented by John Henry Schröeder, librarian of the Royal Neademy of Upsal. Roman and Greek coins, and interesting Roman Antiques, A part of Mrs Thomson Bonur's was exhibited to the Meating by permission of that lady, and attracted great admiration.

fine collection of

The conclusion of Mr Laing's Essay, entitled "Remarks on the State of the Fine Arts in Scotland at an early period, and more particularly during the 15th and 16th centuries," was then read by the secretary. To this paper Mr Laing added a few remarks on the Scottish Artists of the last century; in connexion with which a variety of drawings, by Runciman, Brown, D. Allan, and others, were exhibited, forming a very pleasing addition to the other attractions of the evening. These drawings, we understand, belonged chiefly to the collections of Mr C. K. Sharpe, Mr Sivright, and Mr Laing himself.

Mr Smith, the author of the " Life of Nollekens," has prepared for the press "Memoirs of his own Life and Times," which are said to contain many curious anecdotes of art and artists.

OUR STUDY TABLE is labouring under a plethora. There is the Iliad of that fine old veteran Sotheby. Montgomery's Oxford-an amiable tribute by an ingenious young man to his Alma Mater. We shall speak of its merits and defects freely and candidly. Mr Sewell Stokes is there also with a volume of Discourses on Opinion -we devoutly pray that they may prove better than his poetry. Dibdin's Sunday, and Lardner's Cabinet Library, look the one black, and the other blue. No wonder-there are so many rival libraries, that they must be tolerably squeezed. No. II. of the Library of the Fine Arts, is dull and commonplace. Two new numbers of the Ecole Anglaise, and a batch of the beautiful land. scape illustrations of the Waverley Novels, are lying lovingly together. There are besides Sermons on the death of Dr Andrew Thomson-Pamphlets on the Barilla Question, on Tythes, on the City of Edinburgh Improvements, and on Reform--that "blatant beast," whose roar threatens to drown our small piping, pipe we never so sweetly. Our comfort is that our still small voice will be heard long after he has ceased to thunder. The new number of the Edinburgh University Magazine, which has just come to hand, is excellent. We propose to overhaul the whole of these publications immediately.

FINE ARTS.-Macdonald's Exhibition has opened in London under the most favourable auspices. This artist is taking a bust of Lockhart-a fine subject.-There are murmurs abroad that the Suffolk Street Exhibition will tread close upon the heels of that of Somerset House.-Allan's picture of Lord Byron is finished, but we have not had time to take a glance at it yet.-A trashy pamphlet has been published here, purporting to be a Catalogue Raisonnée of the Scottish Academy's Exhibition. To this no mortal has any right to object; but we certainly are entitled to complain that a big lubberly boy should be stationed on the pave. ment before the door of the Exhibition, with orders to perk it in the face of every person who enters.

CONCERT.-The Concert of the organist, Mr ROGERS, of St John's chapel, consisted, very appropriately, chiefly of sacred music. It was, however, by no means so appropriate that he should attempt "Comfort ye, my People!" "Behold, I tell you a mystery!!" and "Deeper, and deeper still!!!" This was one of those benefit concerts, as they are called, which are no benefit to the giver, a tax on his friends, and sickening to the Public. Of such concerts we have too many. They should not be encouraged. The excuse for them is," Mr Humdrum must have an opportunity of making himself known to the musical world, otherwise how is he to get teaching?" Fudge! If Mr Hundrum's abilities as a public singer (at a concert he cannot display his abilities as a teacher) are such as to do him credit, it is not necessary that he should spend his money upon a benefit concert to make them known. That is rather the place to hide his talents from all but his friends, who know them already. His proper arena for display is at the concerts of the Professional Society, where he will be heard by the whole musical public of Edinburgh. Should his measure of ability not come up to the Professional Society's standard, the more care. fully he avoids bringing himself so prominently forward, the better for all parties. These remarks do not apply to Mr Rogers exclusively. They are applicable to all benefit concerts, with a few rare exceptions; such as Miss Eliza Paton's annual, and Mr Yanie. wicz's farewell concert. Of Mr Rogers we know nothing; but we have heard that he is a worthy man, and a good teacher. Possessed of this reputation, he may rest contented, without aspiring to rival Braham in " Deeper, and deeper still." We have to thank Mr Rogers for considerable exertions to render his concert agreeable. An organ and a chorus, such as Edinburgh affords, were provided; and we had some delicious music from the Misses Paton and Mr Edmunds, in strong contrast with the rest of the performances.

liberal feelings and good sense, who will at once acknowledge the justice of our remarks, their own obligations to this venerable artist, and their determination to follow the same higher course that he has followed, and to give good music and good style their proper place and rank, without yielding one iota to vulgar and ignorant clamour, or to modern musical novelties and humbug. If Mr Yaniewicz's last concert is really to be his last, we trust that his real friends and admirers-among whom we are pleased to number ourselves--will make his concert "A Bumper at Parting!"

ABERDEEN.-The Rev. Abercromby L. Gordon, the talented minis. ter of Greyfriar's Church, has lately called the attention of the Aber. deen public to the introduction of Sessional Schools for the poor, in the six parishes into which this city has been divided; on the principles of those established in Edinburgh, Glasgow, Dundee, &c. The advantages arising from these schools, in this large and popu. lous manufacturing city, would be unspeakably great, and would prove that the Aberdonians, amidst the polishing of their granite, the embellishment of their city, and the noise of their steam-engines and spinning-jennies, were zealous in promoting the moral and religious education of their poorer brethren. By the publica. tion of his " Address to the Inhabitants of Aberdeen," Mr Gordon has conferred a public benefit on this city, and shown himself justly entitled to the appellation of the Poor Man's Friend.—On Tuesday the 1st instant, the Right Hon. the Earl of Errol was elected Lord Rector of Marischal College for the ensuing year; although the students had been upon the qui rire for some time, the election was not so keenly contested as it has been for some years past.

Theatrical Gossip.-Kean has terminated his engagement at Drury-Lane: it is feared little to the profit of the management. He ought not to have returned-at least without such an altera. tion in the state of his health as would have enabled him to do justice to his own conceptions. We feel towards Kean as we did in his brightest days, although we could wish that he tried the public forbearance less. If he has sinned, he has also suffered. --The farce of "Decorum," by Mr Haynes Bayly, was damned, without a hearing, at the same theatre, and has been withdrawn for curtailment and alteration.-At the Adelphi, in like manner, the burletta, called "Bringing Home the Bride," has appealed from the audience of the first to the audience of the second night of performance." La Cenerentola" has been produced with great success at the King's Theatre.-At the Olympic, a new burletta, called " My Grand Aunt, or Where there's a Will"-by Planché, has succeeded.-Nothing but Revolutions; we learn that Messrs Victor Hugo, and Alexandre Dumas, have offered to the commis sion appointed by the Minister of the Interior to regenerate the Théâtre Francais, to take upon themselves, at their own risk and peril, the direction of that establishment, without any assistance, "A Week at Holyrood" has been withdrawn in consequence of the sudden death of Denham. "Don Giovanni" is to be perform. ed this evening.-Young has taken his farewell of the Dublin audience in the character of Hamlet.

TO READERS AND CORRESPONDENTS.

WE see no reason why we should be denied our Easter Holydays, when all the rest of King William's loyal subjects are allowed them. We propose, therefore, in our next, to throw reviewing to the dogs, and indulge in a frolic. It is true that we take this liberty the week before Easter-but the gentle reader will take into consideration that had we waited, our gambols must have been played on the first of April, and who knows to what ill. natured remarks this might have given rise?

"Aberbrothicus" is inadmissible." James Megrim" has quiet sly humour about him-he may try again." A Lover of the Muses" scarcely comes up to our standard.-" A Reader" is decidedly below it-notwithstanding the delicate morceau of flattery by which he seeks to win us.-" R. W." (we think that is the sig. nature) of Glasgow, is under consideration.-We hereby give

any amatory effusions-we are quite overstocked, and intend to hand them over to "John Thomson" for next St Valentine's.