Fig: 6.

let is made of castiron, hinged with

Frequent junctions are of great advantage. Experiment has shown that, with a pipe having a fall of one in sixty, its capacity, with junctions at frequent intervals, is more than three times what it would be if flowing only from a full head at the upper end of the pipe. In sewers of larger sizes the capacity is increased more than eight times.

Various devices have been adopted to secure the admission of surface water from street gutters to the sewer without allowing the escape of sewer gas. These are usually arranged with a deep recess below the outlet for the accumulation of sand and silt washed from the roadway, and with some form of water trap. Their construction in our northern climate should have careful reference to a severe action of the frost, and no plan that has come under my notice seems so well adapted for this as one used by Mr. Shedd, the engineer of the sewerage in

a copper bolt. It is firmly attached to the side of the basin with cement, and, if disturbed by frost, is simply torn loose from the brick work, and can be easily cemented to its place in the spring.

・-14

drains should

have, between

the man-holes, and at every point where the vertical or horizontal direction of the sewer is changed, lamp-holes, at the bottom of which lanterns may be suspendTop view of catch-basin trap. ed which will enable the line to be examined from the nearest man-hole. The removal of all such obstructions accumulating in pipe drains as cannot be washed out by flushing is effected by various instruments attached to jointed rods, like chimneysweep tools, which serve as handles, enabling them to be used even at a distance of several hundred feet.

It was formerly supposed that with pipe sewers not too large for the amount of liquid they were to carry, there would be no necessity for flushing, and so far as sedimentary deposits are concerned this is usually true; but a slimy coating often forms on the wall of the pipe and enters into decomposition, generating objectionable sewer gases. For this reason, all pipes used for house drainage only should be so arranged that they can be occasionally flushed out with a good

flow of fresh water; but where rain-fall is admitted from roadways and from the roofs of houses, additional flushing will not generally be needed, except during epidemics, or in dry, hot seasons. At such times there is always a great advantage in frequent flushing, and occasional disinfection.

It cannot be too often reiterated that the great purpose of modern water sewerage is to remove immediately, entirely beyond the occupied portions of a town, all manner of domestic waste and filth before it has time to enter into decomposition; thus preventing an accumulation of dangerous matter, and obviating the necessity for employing men in the unwholesome work of hand-cleansing of cess - pools and of sewers of deposit, which all sewers are when materially too large for the work they have to perform.

The public sewer or drain may properly afford an outlet to the land drainage of private property, but before reaching the public drain this should pass through at least two rods of sub-main drain laid under the direction of the public engineer, and trapped as he may direct for the exclusion of silt or refuse. This submain should deliver its water into the public drain as nearly as possible in the direction of the flow of the latter, so that the streams may run together without confusion, and the danger from eddies be obviated. Drains from houses and all private establishments should be connected with the sewer under similar official regulation.

It is a frequent practice with engineers to admit house drains at a very low point in the wall of the sewer, where they will ordinarily be entirely submerged. This renders such connections inoperative as a means for ventilating the sewer, and the ventilation of the soil pipes of houses so connected will consequently be of no avail as a part of the public system of ventilation. If the drain has no ingress for air at its lower end, the ventilation of the soil pipe itself will be much less complete; the pent-up gases arising from the decomposition of the contained organic matters may escape, but there will be

little of the needed circulation of air in the pipe. With a free sweep of air from below, this decomposition would not take place in a pent-up condition, but would be carried on with a full supply of constantly changing atmosphere. Under these circumstances the ventilation of the street sewer would have to depend upon its street openings alone. In a perfect system these should even play a somewhat secondary part, acting more as a means for the inlet of fresh air to supply the higher ventilators than as a means of escape for the air of the sewer itself.

The question of cost should be taken into very early consideration, and it will not be slight; but pari passu there should be a due estimate of the benefits to accrue. These are not of such a character that they can be very readily calculated in dollars and cents, but there are few cases, in towns of five thousand inhabitants and over, where their importance will not be very fully appreciated.

The construction of a proper system of sewerage is at best expensive, but it may be much more cheaply done if taken in hand at once and carried on systematically until the whole is complete, than if done piecemeal, here and there, as property-holders may elect, which is the general custom in America. I do not know that the English method of paying for the cost by distributing principal and interest over a period of years has been adopted with us, but it seems the most just and the least oppressive. It is more fair to posterity, without bearing heavily on the present generation, than payment by interest-bearing bonds to be redeemed twenty or thirty years hence.

Latham, in his inaugural address as President of the Society of Engineers, made a calculation of the cost and value of the water-works and sewerage of the town of Croydon, as follows:—

Cost: purchase of land (for sewage utilization), £50,000; water-works, £70,000; sewers, irrigation works, baths, abattoirs, and general improvements, £75,000. Total, £195,000. The money savings during thirteen years since the completion of the work, he estimates to have been:

2439 funerals, which would have cost £12,195; 60,975 cases of sickness prevented, £60,975; value of the labor for six and one half years of 1317 adult persons whose lives were extended, £166,930. Total, £240,100. He says, "Although it has been attempted to put a money value on human life, we individually feel that life is priceless, and we may look to the 2439 persons saved from the jaws of death in this single town as the living testimony of the great value of sanitary works."

It is well known to physicians that their chances of success in the treatment of disease are very much reduced with persons living in unhealthy places.

The cost of sewerage works is often made unnecessarily great with the idea that it is the duty of the public to furnish an outlet for factories, slaughterhouses, and all manner of establishments which are carried on for individual profit, and in which the cost of removing the resultant refuse is fairly chargeable on the business rather than on the public purse.

So far as the community is concerned, it should be compelled to construct sewers only for the removal of such waste matters as are incident to the daily life of all classes of the population. If breweries, chemical works, and other manufactories producing a large amount of liquid waste, are to be provided with a means of outlet, this should be done entirely at their own charge; their profit and convenience should not be advanced at the cost of every member of the community. And more than this, the wastes of factories being often pernicious, not only on reaching the outlet of the sewer, but by the generation of gases within them which may pervade all their ramifications, it is a serious question whether such establishments should not be compelled to secure independent outlets at their own expense, or at least to render their wastes innoxious before discharging them into the public drain; paying even then an extra sewer-rate proportionate to the extra service they require.

The sanitary authority of every town should have entire control over the sew

ers, with power to decide what shall be admitted to them and what excluded, and to levy an additional tax in all cases where an undue use is made of the public convenience.

In the limited space of a magazine article it would be out of place to go very largely into the question of the economical use of the organic wastes of the house or town. The utilitarian question, important though it is, is but secondary. At the same time, as an accessory, the matter of economy is very important, and in every perfect system of sanitary improvement the arrangements must be such that there shall be a complete utilization of all the valuable constituents of the wastes of domestic life; and practically our arrangements should be so nearly perfect that nothing shall be lost that can be economically saved.

In our climate, sewage irrigation cannot be carried on in winter, but it may be made very useful during the growing (and sickly) season.

In sewage irrigation the amount of land appropriated should not be less than one acre to one hundred and fifty of population, and should lie not more than a mile from the town. The same land should not receive sewage two days in succession, and each area should have occasional periods of rest for a whole growing season.

If the land is of a very retentive character, even if well underdrained, it would be better to allow an acre to one hundred of population.

Bailey Denton objects to the disposal of large volumes of sewage by sub-irrigation, but where the ground is covered with vegetation, and where the flow is evenly and intermittently distributed in that part of the soil occupied by roots, especially if not in too close proximity to wells, it must be, under many circumstances, the best system.

Under favorable conditions, the utilization of the manurial matter contained in sewers is more easy by the system of irrigation than by any other in general

use.

Where the earth-closet is used, and

where there is no system of sewers for the removal of liquid wastes, some provision must necessarily be made for disposing of slop water before it can generate dangerous products of decomposition. This may be best effected in many cases by the use of some device like Field's flush tank (described in the preceding paper), in connection with the subirrigation of the lawn or garden.

The "general conclusions" of the English Board of Health, after a thorough investigation of the whole subject of sewerage, were as follows:

1. That no population living amidst aerial impurities arising from putrid emanations from cess-pools, drains, or sewers of deposit, can be healthy or free from attacks of devastating epidemics.

2. That as a primary condition to salubrity no ordure or refuse can be permitted to remain beneath or near habitations, and by no other means can remedial operations be so conveniently, economically, inoffensively, and quickly effected as by the removal of all such refuse dissolved or suspended in water.

3. That the general use of large brick sewers has resulted from ignorance or neglect; such sewers being wasteful in construction and repair, and costly through inefficient efforts to keep them free from deposits.

4. That brick and stone house drains are "false in principle and wasteful in the cleansing, construction, and repair. That house drains and sewers, properly constructed of vitrified pipe, detain and accumulate no deposit, emit no offensive smells, and require no additional supplies of water to keep them clear."

5. That an artificial fall may be cheaply and economically obtained by steam pumping, and that the cost of the whole system to each house is much less than the cost to that house of removing its refuse by hand.

6. All offensive smells proceeding from any works intended for house or town drainage indicate the fact of the detention and decomposition of ordure, and afford decisive evidence of malconstruction or of ignorant or defective arrange

ment.

George E. Waring, Jr.

XI.

MRS. HUDSON.

OF Roderick, meanwhile, Rowland saw nothing; but he immediately went to Mrs. Hudson and assured her that her son was in even exceptionally good health and spirits. After this he called again on the two ladies from Northampton, but, as Roderick's absence continued, he was able neither to furnish nor to obtain much comfort. Miss Garland's apprehensive face seemed to him an image of his own state of mind. He was profoundly depressed; he felt that there was a storm in the air, and he

wished it would come, without more delay, and perform its ravages. On the afternoon of the third day he went into Saint Peter's, his frequent resort whenever the outer world was disagreeable. From a heart- ache to a Roman rain there were few importunate pains the great church did not help him to forget. He had wandered there for half an hour, when he came upon a short figure, lurking in the shadow of one of the great piers. He saw it was that of an artist, hastily transferring to his sketch-book a memento of some fleeting variation in the scenery of the basilica; and in a moment he perceived that the artist was little Sam Singleton.

Singleton pocketed his sketch - book with a guilty air, as if it cost his modesty a pang to be detected in this greedy culture of opportunity. Rowland always enjoyed meeting him; talking with him, in these days, was as good as a wayside gush of clear, cold water, on a long, hot walk. There was, perhaps, no drinking-vessel, and you had to apply your lips to some simple, natural conduit; but the result was always a sense of extreme moral refreshment. On this occasion he mentally blessed the ingenuous little artist, and heard presently with keen regret that he was to leave Rome on the morrow. Singleton had come to bid farewell to Saint Peter's, and he was gathering a few supreme memories. He had earned a purse-full of money, and he was meaning to take a summer's holiday; going to Switzerland, to Germany, to Paris. In the autumn he was to return home; his family -- composed, as Rowland knew, of a father who was cashier in a bank and five unmarried sisters, one of whom gave lyceum-lectures on woman's rights, the whole resident at Buffalo, New York—had been writing him peremptory letters and appealing to him as a son, brother, and fellow-citizen. He would have been grateful for another year in Rome, but what must be must be, and he had laid up treasure which, in Buffalo, would seem infinite. They talked some time; Rowland hoped they might meet in Switzerland and take a walk or two together. Singleton seemed to feel that Buffalo had marked him for her own; he was afraid he should not see Rome again for many a year.

"So you expect to live at Buffalo?" Rowland asked, sympathetically.

-

"Well, it will depend upon the views upon the attitude -of my family," Singleton replied. "Oh, I think I shall get on; I think it can be done. If I find it can be done, I shall really be quite proud of it; as an artist of course I mean, you know. Do you know I have some nine hundred sketches? I shall live in my portfolio. And so long as one is not in Rome, pray what does it matter where one is? But how I shall envy

all you Romans-you and Mr. Gloriani, and Mr. Hudson, especially!

"Don't envy Hudson; he has nothing to envy."

Singleton grinned at what he considered a harmless jest. "Yes, he 's going to be the great man of our time! And I say, Mr. Mallet, is n't it a mighty comfort that it's we who have turned him out?"

"Between ourselves," said Rowland, "he has disappointed me."

Singleton stared, open mouthed. "Dear me, what did you expect?"

46

Truly," said Rowland to himself, "what did I expect?

"I confess," cried Singleton, "I can't judge him rationally. He fascinates me; he's the sort of man one makes one's hero of."

"Strictly speaking he 's not a hero,” said Rowland.

Singleton looked intensely grave, and, with almost tearful eyes, "Is there anything amiss anything out of the way, about him?" he timidly asked. Then, as Rowland hesitated to reply, he quickly added, “ Please, if there is, don't tell me! I want to know no evil of him, and I think I should hardly believe it. In my memories of this Roman artist-life, he will be the central figure. He will stand there in radiant relief, as beautiful and unspotted as one of his own statues!"

"Amen!" said Rowland, gravely. He remembered afresh that the sea is inhabited by big fishes and little, and that the latter often find their way down the throats of the former. Singleton was going to spend the afternoon in taking last looks at certain other places, and Rowland offered to join him on his sentimental circuit. But as they were preparing to leave the church, he heard himself suddenly addressed from behind. Turning, he beheld a young woman whom he immediately recognized as Madame Grandoni's maid. Her mistress was present, she said, and begged to confer with him before he departed.

This summons obliged Rowland to separate from Singleton, to whom he bade farewell. He followed the messenger, and presently found Madame