Connecticut was the fifth in the order of adoption. The most prominent advocate of the Federal Constitution in that State was Oliver Ellsworth. The Constitution was adopted by a large majority January 9, 1788.

In Massachusetts, the opposition was strong in numbers and in talent, but the influence of John Hancock was used to conciliate the opposition. It was proposed that the Constitution should be unconditionally adopted, and that certain amendments should be earnestly recommended. On February 6, 1788, the adoption was carried by a majority of nineteen. The wise plan adopted in this State saved the Constitution.

Maryland adopted the Constitution April 26, 1788, after an unsuccessful attempt of the opposition at adjournment of the convention. In South Carolina the influence of the Pinckneys and the Rutledges prevailed, and a convention was called which adopted the Constitution May 23, 1788. New Hampshire, after delays caused by adjournment and reassembling of the State convention, at last adopted the instrument of government June 21, 1788.

The opposition in Virginia was very strong, and was led by Patrick Henry. He claimed that the new government was not a compact between sovereign States, but a National Government. Speaking of the preamble he said: "Who authorized them to speak the language of 'We the people,' instead of 'We the States'?" Madison, Marshall, Randolph, and others answered these objections effectively. After long continued debates, the Constitution was adopted by the convention, June 25, 1788.

In New York, two thirds of the members of the convention were opposed to the Constitution. At last through the efforts of Hamilton, Livingston, and Jay, the Constitution was adopted July 26, 1788, by a vote of 30 to 27.

The Constitution was thus ratified by eleven States. When the ratification of nine States had been received by the Congress of the Confederation, an Act putting the Constitution into effect was reported and passed. Elections for the new government were

directed to be held in January, 1789, the Presidential Electors were to meet on the first Wednesday in February, and the first Wednesday in March, 1789, was designated as the time for commencing proceedings under the Constitution.

The Constitution was rejected at first by Rhode Island and North Carolina. The latter State finally ratified the Constitution November 21, 1789. Rhode Island remained out of the Union until May 29, 1790.

The history of the Constitution shows that it was designed to form a National Government, and that it was ordained and established by the People of the United States. Hence, in the words of Washington's "Farewell Address": "Until changed by an explicit and authentic act of the whole, it is sacredly obligatory upon all." Ch. XXXII.

Assumption of the State Debts and Location of the National Capital. Two distinctly sectional acts of legislation were settled by a compromise which practically set off against each other the location of the National capital on the Potomac river, and the assumption of the State debts by the National Government. In due course of time the President selected the present site at Washington, D. C., and State debts amounting to $21,000,000 were assumed by the Federal Government. It is said that Hamilton, as a Northern man, appealed to Jefferson, over whose dining table an agreement was reached that the Virginia members would vote for the assumption of the debts, if Hamilton would find the votes necessary to fix the National capital on the Potomac. By such compromise-it would be called "a deal" to-day-both measures were passed.

By a proclamation issued March 30, 1791, Washington announced that the Federal District had been located. The original cession was ten miles square, lying on both sides of the Potomac, about two thirds being in Maryland and the remainder in Virginia. The portion lying in Virginia has since been restored to that State. Ch. XXXII. Historical Order of the Executive Departments.—The first

executive department to be established was the Department of State-called at first the Department of Foreign Affairs. President Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson to this office in 1789.

An effort was made by Congress to make the head of the Treasury Department an agent of the Legislative branch of government, rather than an officer under the President. The difficulty, however, was overcome, and Alexander Hamilton became the first Secretary of the Treasury in 1789.

The War Department was also established in 1789 when General Henry Knox, who had been head of the army, was called to the position of Secretary of War.

In the same year the President appointed Edmund Randolph Attorney-General of the United States. Washington also called Samuel Osgood to the office of Postmaster-General in 1789, but the incumbent of this office was not considered a member of the Cabinet until 1829.

The Navy Department was established in 1798, and President John Adams called Benjamin Stoddert to the position.

Half a century afterwards, in 1849, on the establishment of the Department of the Interior, President Taylor appointed Thomas Ewing to the position of Secretary of the Interior.

The first Secretary of Agriculture, Norman J. Colman, was appointed by President Cleveland in 1889. The latest Cabinet position to be instituted is that of Secretary of Commerce and Labor. In 1903 George B. Cortelyou was appointed to this Cabinet office by President Roosevelt. Ch. XXXII.

The National Capitol.-The corner stone of the Capitol was laid in 1793. The wings were first completed, and about $750,000 had been expended upon the building when it was partially destroyed by the British in 1814. Four years afterwards the work on the central part was begun, and improvements have been made until now it is one of the stateliest and most harmonious buildings in the world. Built of white marble, on a hill overlooking the city, it stands, indeed, as a beautiful and impressive structure.

It is 751 feet long, 350 feet wide, and is surmounted by a dome 287 feet above the base, crowned by a figure of Liberty, twenty feet high. The original dome was of wood, covered with copper, but in 1856 the present structure of iron was begun. All through the Civil War the work on the dome steadily progressed, and in 1865 the structure was completed. Ch. XXXII.

Income Tax Amendment.—The pending Constitutional amendment empowers the Federal Government to impose a tax on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportioning the same according to population.

The amendment which Congress has asked all the States to vote upon in their Legislatures is as follows:

"That Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration."

Which means, briefly, the income tax.

By an interpretation made in Congress in 1868 it is held that if a State once votes to accept an amendment, such action is final; but that the measure may be brought up again, even before a subsequent Legislature, if it fails the first time. Nothing but ratification forecloses the right of action. But even in case no more than eleven States vote against the amendment, the income tax will not be secure. With the amendment made a part of the supreme law of the land, a bill must be enacted by Congress in order to make the income tax amendment effective.

It will be remembered that an income tax law went into effect June 1, 1895, and later was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court under circumstances which caused much severe criticism of that body. Since the new amendment was sent out to the States for ratification (1909) after passing the United States Senate unanimously and receiving all but fourteen votes in the House of Representatives, the subject has been under discussion. At the moment of writing (1911), thirty States have ratified it while eleven have refused ratification.

The income tax seems defeated for the present, but it is likely that its ratification is only deferred. The admission of New Mexico and Arizona will change the situation very little. With forty-eight States, the ratification of thirty-six will be required; the adverse vote of twelve legislative chambers out of ninetysix could still defeat the amendment.

Whenever it becomes as easy to amend our Constitution as it is in some countries, then revolutions will become as common with us as with them. Ch. XXXII.

Religious Liberty.-No one should refuse to vote for any thoroughly upright and fit man because of his religion. Some feel the necessity of opposing this man's Unitarianism, others that man's Catholicism. But we need have no fears on such matters so long as a recent speaker, while upholding the loyalty of the Catholic church, could declare that, if need be, every priest in this country would melt the sacred vessels of the altar to provide for the defense of our flag. Ch. XXXII.

The Office of Vice President.-The Constitutional Convention of 1787 had been in session more than four months before anybody thought of the office of the second officer of the Government. When the Committee of Eleven, on September 4, suggested the novel idea of the Vice Presidency, Mason of Virginia declared that it was "an unnecessary office." The desire for it grew out of the fear of the smaller States that the larger States would have an advantage over them in the new government then under consideration. Thrust into our governmental mechanism by little States for little reasons, this "fifth wheel" has been a source of annoyance and danger ever since. No provision has ever been made for succession to the office of Vice President, although on occasion the duties of the office are assumed by the President pro tempore of the Senate. The difficulty which arose in 1801 through the equality of the votes for Jefferson and Burr was a sure demonstration of the danger due to the plan of voting for both President and Vice President upon one ballot. The duty of electing a President devolved upon the House of Repre