wars. The same is true of the sums expended in the form of pensions. By an Act approved February 6, 1907, a pension is proIvided for all veterans of the Mexican and Civil Wars who have reached the age of sixty-two years, irrespective of physical disability. On June 30, 1908, there were 951,687 pensioners on the rolls. To that date the total disbursements for pensions for all wars and for the regular establishment amounted to $3,691,230,634. There are still two daughters of Revolutionary soldiers on the pension rolls. The last survivor of the Revolutionary War was Daniel F. Bakeman, who died April 5, 1869, aged 109 years. The last surviving widow of a Revolutionary soldier was Esther S. Damon, who died November 11, 1906, aged 92 years. The last survivor of the War of 1812 who was on the pension rolls was Hiram Cronk, who died May 13, 1905, aged 105 years. There were in 1908 still over 450 widows who were pensioners of the War of 1812. Ch. XXIX.

Manufactures in the United States.-Fifteen billion of dollars ($15,000,000,000) represents the value of the annual production of manufactures in the United States, according to the report of the Chief of the Bureau of Manufactures in 1908. The figures do not represent the value of the finished products entirely, but include products in various stages of progress. The aggregate value of domestic merchandise exported was $1,861,000,000.

Ch. XXIX.

In Honor of Lincoln.—On August 2, 1909, the new “Lincoln” cents ordered struck off in commemoration of the one hundredth anniversary of the late President's birth were issued from the mint in Philadelphia.

The head of Lincoln, which appears on the coins, was designed by Brenner from a photograph in the possession of Charles Eliot Norton. The artist makes the face relaxed and smiling, seeking to express Lincoln's face when he was talking with children.

The artist, Victor D. Brenner, a young Russian, came as a boy to this country, sold matches on the streets and studied at night at Cooper Institute in New York. He saved enough money

to continue his studies in Paris. Returning, he opened a studio in this country, where he has won great distinction as a medalist. The coins as originally issued contained the artist's initials “V. D. B.” on the reverse side. Owing to criticism, however, new dies were prepared in which the letters were removed.

The idea of changing the design of the one-cent piece from the "Indian head" so familiar to all originated with President Roosevelt. He had seen the artist's portrait of Lincoln in low relief, and, admiring it greatly, proposed that the portrait should be adapted for use on this coin as one way of observing the Lincoln centenary.

The entire first issue of $150,000 worth of new pennies went promptly into circulation, the amount having been apportioned among the subtreasuries and in turn sent out to various banks. In every city there was an urgent demand for the new coins. There was a long line of people at the subtreasury in New York before the doors opened on August 2, anxious to get possession of them. Coin collectors were eager to get a supply in anticipation of the destruction of the dies. It is not likely that the coins will ever command much of a premium, because of the large number made and now in circulation. Artistically the Lincoln cent is a beautiful coin. Ch. XXIX. United States Commissioners.-The committing magistrates of the Federal District Courts are the United States commissioners appointed by each district judge in various parts of his district. Persons arrested for crimes against the United States are brought before these commissioners, and if the evidence warrants holding the prisoners for court, they are sent to jail or admitted to bail until they can be brought to trial. These commissioners occupy a relative position in the Federal judicial system similar to that of the petty courts of the judiciaries of the several States. Commissioners are appointed by the judges of the District Courts, and in such numbers as the courts may consider necessary to the transaction of the business, and to the performance of the duties imposed. The appointment of a commissioner must be recorded

in the court, and the Attorney-General be notified. Commissioners hold office during four years, but are subject to removal at any time by the court. They are paid by fees which are prescribed by law. They are authorized to administer oaths and to issue warrants for offenses against the United States, to cause offenders to be arrested and imprisoned or bailed for trial, and to order the removal of offenders to other districts. Complaints of the violation of the Chinese exclusion law are heard before United States commissioners, and the commissioner before whom the complaint shall be heard is designated by the United States District Attorney for the district. Ch. XXX.

Distribution of Powers.-Certain powers belong exclusively to the Federal Government, and are so given by the Constitution. Thus the framers of that instrument gave to the central government absolute control over the following matters: war, peace, treaties, alliances, ambassadors, postal affairs, the army and navy, foreign commerce, interstate commerce, naturalization, coinage of money, Indian affairs, patents, copyrights, bankruptcy, Territories, letters of marque and reprisal.

By an amendment adopted in 1791 (Am. 10), it was declared that the powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.

But if the Federal Government and the State governments are to work in harmony, certain powers must not be given exclusively to either, but powers of the same kind must be granted to both. Powers belonging to both governments are called concurrent. Those established by the Constitution relate to the following matters: taxation, public debt, citizenship, suffrage, elections, militia, and eminent domain.

In order to safeguard the interests of the States, certain powers were formally prohibited to the Federal Government. Thus the first eight amendments restrain the Federal Government but do not restrain the States. Certain powers are denied to the Federal Government in Article I, Section 9 (J).

The framers of the Constitution saw also that certain limitations upon the power of the States would be valuable. As a pledge of good faith on the part of the States, a self-denying section, Article I, Section 10, was inserted (K).

As will be seen, there are three prohibitions upon both State and Federal governments: neither a State nor the United States can grant any title of nobility (J3, K 1); or pass an ex post facto law (J3, K1); or pass any bill of attainder (J 3, K 1). These cannot possibly be done by any existing governmental agency. Ch. XXXI.

Panama Canal. This great canal will extend across the Isthmus of Panama from Colon, on the Atlantic coast, to Panama, on the Pacific. From a National point of view the completion of this canal will be invaluable, as it will give water communication between the coasts of the two great oceans, and will place our island possessions, in point of communication, several thousand miles nearer the seat of government than they now are. Mahan, a distinguished naval officer, says that the Isthmus, with all that depends upon it,-its canal and its approaches on either hand,-will link the eastern side of the American continent to the western as no network of land communications ever can. The United States has already asserted a special interest in it; and in the present she can maintain her claim, and in the future perform her duty, only by the creation of sea power sufficient to hold predominance in the Caribbean Sea. The logical outcome of the broadening and tightening hold upon the sentiment of American democracy of that principle known as the Monroe Doctrine is the rehabilitation of the Nation as a great sea power, notwithstanding the opposition of those who wish peace without paying the price which alone has ever insured peace,―readiness for war.

The action of President Roosevelt, in recognizing the independence of the Republic of Panama November 13, 1903, when he received its minister, has led to very important relations. A treaty between the United States and the Republic of Panama,

in effect February 26, 1904, provides for the cession by Panama of a strip of territory ten miles in width extending to the distance of five miles on each side of the central line of the route of the Panama Canal. This grant does not, however, include the cities of Panama and Colon, although they are within these boundaries. The United States controls all islands within the zone, and four small islands in the Bay of Panama.

Since the putting forth of the Monroe Doctrine, Americans have insisted upon control of an Isthmian Canal, whether at Nicaragua or at Panama. International questions have often been raised, and several generations have waited to see what is now being witnessed. At Paris, on April 22, 1904, the Panama Canal Company transferred its rights to the United States in consideration of $40,000,000 paid by warrant of the Secretary of the Treasury. The Republic of Panama received $10,000,000.

The work on the Panama Canal is making fair progress, and the entire expenditures to June 30, 1908, amount to $139,387,649. Colonel George W. Goethals, Chairman of the Canal Commission, says that the Panama Canal will be open for business January 1, 1915. Ch. XXXI. Nullification and Secession.-Nullification is the refusal of a State to permit an act of Congress to be carried out within the limits of that State. The so-called right is based upon the theory that the Constitution is a simple compact between the States. The assumption is made that each State has the right to determine for itself when an enactment of the general government is to be declared null and void. The right of secession is a kindred claim. The proclamation by President Jackson destroyed nullification, and secession died amid the terrors of civil war. The Constitution in all its aspects looks to an indestructible Union of indestructible States. Appomattox was a blessing to both North and South. It was there decided that there were not to be two republics, nor a dozen, between the Great Lakes and the Rio Grande. For this result, as well as for the extinction of