it is the defender of the Constitution, but because of the ability and integrity of its judges. It has shown a strong disposition to perform its duties and render its opinions in accordance with the true meaning of the Constitution, and thus to be strictly representative of the people.

In all cases where a State or a foreign minister is a party the Supreme Court has original jurisdiction, while in all other cases it has appellate jurisdiction only. Any case which involves the Constitution of the United States can be taken to the Supreme Court, however small the amount in dispute (Q2).

When the President of the United States is impeached, the Chief Justice presides at the trial by the Senate (Do).

Circuits and Circuit Judges.-The United States, exclusive of the Territories, is divided into nine judicial circuits, each consisting of three or more States. The first circuit contains four States, the second three, the third three, the fourth five, and so on. Each of the nine Justices of the Supreme Court is presiding judge of a circuit. In each circuit the presiding Justice is assisted by circuit judges. Five of the circuits have three judges each; but the fourth circuit has only two. The second, seventh, and eighth circuits have four each. The third circuit, consisting of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware, has three judges. The circuit judges are appointed by the President, by and with the consent of the Senate. A circuit judge receives a salary of $7,000, and must reside within his circuit. There are at present twenty-nine circuit judges exclusive of the Commerce Court.

By an Act of Congress entitled "The Judicial Code" and taking effect January 1, 1912, the Circuit Courts of original jurisdiction are abolished, and the powers and duties of such courts are imposed upon the District Courts.

Circuit Court of Appeals.-The judges of each circuit and the Justice of the Supreme Court for the circuit constitute a Circuit Court of Appeals. It is a court of record, but as its name implies, its jurisdiction is appellate only. Its decisions are final in all cases which arise on account of the citizenship of the parties, and also in many cases under the patent, copyright, revenue, admiralty, and criminal laws; and in all other cases involving not more than $1,000. Cases that involve the meaning of the Constitution or the constitutionality of a law, and also criminal cases which carry the penalty of death may be appealed directly from the District Courts to the Supreme Court. The Circuit Courts of Appeals were established by Congress in 1891 expressly for the purpose of relieving the Supreme Court of a part of its business. The Court of Appeals of the third circuit is held in Philadelphia. The Court of Appeals of the ninth circuit (San Francisco) hears appeals from the United States Courts of China and Alaska.

District Courts.-The nine circuits are divided into judicial districts, and in each of these there is a special district judge. Districts never cross State lines. Sometimes a State constitutes one district, but a populous State may be divided into two or three districts. Pennsylvania has three United States District Courts. The sessions of the Eastern district are held in Philadelphia; of the Middle district, in Harrisburg, Williamsport, and Scranton; of the Western district in Pittsburg and Erie. The number of districts in the United States at present is eighty, presided over by eighty-nine judges. District Courts deal with the more common civil cases arising under United States law, and such crimes against the country as counterfeiting, robbing the mails, etc. District judges are not confined to their own districts, but occasionally exchange.

A district judge may, when it facilitates the business, sit as a circuit judge. The original jurisdiction of the District Courts is extensive, and in all claims not exceeding $10,000 founded upon the Constitution or any law of Congress, or regulation of the Executive Department, or contract with the Government the jurisdiction is concurrent with that of the Court of Claims. The salary is $6,000.

The District Attorney and the Marshal.-Nearly every district has its own Federal district attorney, and a United States marshal, both appointed by the President. The former is the public prosecutor in behalf of the United States. The marshal is the ministerial officer of the District Courts. He is, in fact, the Federal sheriff; and is entitled to call on all good citizens for help, should any occasion for it arise.

The Court of Claims.-The Court of Claims consists of five judges appointed by the President, and has jurisdiction over certain classes of claims made against the United States. If judgment is given against the government, Congress appropriates money for the settlement of the claim. The court holds its sessions in Washington, D. C.

Customs Court of Appeals.-The Tariff Act of 1909 created a Customs Court of Appeals having authority in all cases regarding the collection of customs duties, with no appeal except on questions of constitutionality. The court consists of a presiding judge and four associate judges, all appointed by the President. The salary is placed at $10,000 each per annum. A Deputy Assistant Attorney-General is attached to this court. Together with one of the Assistant Attorneys-General and four attorneys appointed as aids, he represents the Government in all matters of reappraisement and classification of imported goods, and of all incident litigation. Great difficulty has heretofore been experienced

in obtaining in the Federal Courts consistent decisions in the trial of cases of protested duties. Cotton cloth of a certain quality paid duties varying from twenty-four cents to twelve cents per square yard under consecutive judicial interpretations of the same tariff laws. That such varying duties in different years should be levied is injurious alike to the importer, the manufacturer, and the consumer. The Customs Court, in connection with the Tariff Commission, will do much to remove such unjust variation.

Court of the District of Columbia: Territorial Courts.The Courts of the District of Columbia and of the Territories are courts of the United States which bear the character of State courts and Federal courts united. The judges of these courts do not come within the constitutional provisions in regard to tenure of office. Congress, however, has provided that the judges of the Court of the District of Columbia shall hold office during good behavior as do the other judges of the Federal system. But the term of office of a Territorial judge is fixed at four years.

The Supreme Court of the District of Columbia deals with the civil and criminal cases within the District. There are six judges on the bench of this court; and any one of these may hold a court with powers similar to those of district judges in the States. The Court of Appeals of the District of Columbia consists of three judges. Their court has powers similar to those of the Circuit Courts of Appeals.

The Territorial Courts are organized in a manner similar to that of the Supreme Court of the District of Columbia, but the number of judges is smaller. All of these judges are appointed by the President, by and with the consent of the Senate.

Consular Courts. In certain foreign countries, United

States consuls exercise judicial functions in settling disputes in which Americans are interested. This procedure is founded upon the assumption that in the country in which the consul is located, the laws are so imperfectly administered that the lives and property of American citizens could not safely be left to depend upon them. According to some treaties with civilized nations United States consuls have jurisdiction over disputes between masters, officers, and crews of National vessels, while in a foreign port, on questions of wages, shipment, and discharge of seamen.

Courts-martial. All cases arising in the military and naval service are tried in special courts called courts-martial. The militia, also, in time of war and public danger fall under the same rule. Such court has no jurisdiction over any citizen not employed in the military or naval service.

The court consists of a number of army or navy officers appointed to try the case; the officers being selected from that branch of the service which is concerned in the matter. The rule in regard to an indictment by a grand jury has no application in cases of court-martial.

Jury Trial: Place.—Trial by jury has been for centuries one of the most jealously guarded rights of the people. The Constitution expressly states that the trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury (Q 3). The accused person must be tried in the district where the crime was committed. This secures justice to the accused person, since he is tried among his friends and acquaintances and near the residence of his witnesses. These may readily attend the trial, so that he shall not be deprived of the testimony of any important witness.

Treason Defined.-Treason is a crime which is usually placed in a class by itself. Treason is an act committed by the