his Pallas of brass for Athens, his Venus Urania, his Nemesis in the temple at Marathon, and his Amazon, called Eucnemon, from the beauty of her limbs, deserve mention. He made but a single boy from life. His favorite disciples were Alcamenes of Attica and Agoracritus of Paros. The most celebrated works of the former were his Vulcan, his Olympian conqueror, his Cupid, his Mars, and his Venus. The second was a still greater favorite of Phidias; he contended with Alcamenes in the execution of a Venus, and was adjudged to be inferior by the Athenians only out of partiality to their fellow-citizen; he transformed his Venus to a Nemesis, and sold it at Rhamnus. Varro considered this statue the finest ever executed. Polycletus of Argos made Juno, the third chief ideal figure, a companion to the Olympic Jupiter. In the Ludovisian Juno, an imitation of her head is preserved. Polycletus sculptured, besides his famous canon, all the beautiful gymnastic positions of boys, and all the sports of youth: the highest ideal of this class is his Mercury. A tender softness was peculiar to this master, as shown in his charming Canephora of Athens. He chiefly cast in metal. His fellow disciple and rival was Myron of Eleutheræ in Boeotia. He executed three colossuses upon one pedestal-Minerva presenting the deitied Hercules to Jupiter. The fertile genius of Myron was displayed in the choice of new and bold positions. He despised the softer forms of the Ephebi, and showed his skill in the representation of the most highly finished athletic forms. His Runner, his Slinger, and his Pancratists, are celebrated. His ideal of Hercules completed this class of forms. His Heifer, and his Sea Monster, are famous among his animal forms. But one thing was wanting to this great sculptor-grace of expression: in this he was surpassed by his rival, Pythagoras of Rhegium, who adopted the undulating line as the line of beauty, and first expressed the sinews and veins with accuracy. He created the ideal of Apollo in the position of an archer who has just shot the serpent Python. The imitation of this is the most splendid statue which we possess the Apollo Belvedere. Third Period.-Beautiful Style.-Socrates, the sculptor of the clothed Graces, with Athenodorus and Naucydes, began this epoch., Praxiteles and Scopas brought the art to its highest perfection, since they united beauty with grace. The most celobrated works of Scopas are his furious Bacchante (the head, bending backwards,

united the highest beauty with Bacchanalian frenzy), his Cupid, his Venus (probably the model of the Medicean), and his group, the Triumph of Achilles, whom Thetis is conducting, after his death, to the happy islands, in which Scopas found an opportunity of introducing numberless Tritons, Nereids and sea monsters in the most charming combinations. Praxiteles, the most feeling of all sculptors, created the perfect ideals of Diana and of Bacchus. He formed the latter as a contrast to the Satyrs and Fauns, who express rudeness and licentiousness; it was soft and tender, without being effeminate; it was perpetual gayety personified in the victorious god, sporting with his companions. The Diana of this artist expressed virgin modesty, with bold activity. Homer's Nausicaa inspired him. He made, also, the admired statue of a Satyr (Periboetos), and the ideal of Eros, or Cupid. The god of love was never represented by the ancients as an infant; the true infantile representation was not admissible till after the Christian era. Eros always had the form of a boy approaching youth. Praxiteles first attempted to represent Venus entirely naked, and thus created the later ideal of the goddess. His most celebrated works are his Venus of Cos and of Cnidos. The former is covered from the hip downward; the latter entirely naked, holding her garment with her left hand over the bath. We possess imitations of both. The group of Niobe is also ascribed to this master. His son Cephissodorus was celebrated for his gymnastic Symplegma (two wrestlers with hands interlaced), and his Æsculapius. After his time, the art degenerated through the introduction of the most voluptuous representations. Praxiteles had already formed, for Phryne, a Group in bronze, in which he placed a laughing Hetæra opposite to a weeping matron. Hermaphrodites, groups of Satyrs and Nymphs, were formed with great perfection of art, and equal looseness of moral sentiment.

Fourth Period.-Age of Alexander the Great.-Art could only gain through grace and softness of execution, since the high ideal beauty was on the decline. Lysippus of Sicyon appeared and became the master of elevated portrait sculpture. Among the gods, Hercules was his favorite, and he perfected the ideal figure of Neptune, designed by Euphranor. He represented Alexander from his childhood to his manhood. It is affirmed that he alone made 1500 statues; some limit this number to 610; every figure

of his great groups, however, is included in this estimate. The most celebrated among these groups are, Alexander hunting, and the twenty-five equestrian statues, representing the Macedonian friends, who fell in the first attack near the Granicus, at the side of Alexander. His horses are very beautiful. Euthycrates, his son, and Apollodorus and Silanion, were great sculptors of this period. Chares of Lindus cast the famous Colossus (q. v.) of Rhodes. Agesander, Athenodorus, and Polydorus, father and sons, of Rhodes, formed the celebrated group of Laocoon; Glycon of Athens, the Farnese Hercules; Apollonius and Tauriscus, the Farnese bull. The sculptors of Rome were Greeks; we only know of them, Arcesilaus, the friend of Lucius Lucullus, and Praxiteles, the greatest modeller of the age of Pompey. He wrote five books on the most celebrated works of art. Zenodorus had formed, in Gaul, a colossal Mercury in brass, and was invited by Nero to Rome, to make a colossal statue of him, 110 feet high; the casting failed. The reclining statue of the dying Cleopatra was executed in the reign of the emperor Augustus. Cleomenes, an Athenian, made the statue of Germanicus, in the time of Tiberius. The four beautiful horses of brass, above the chief entrance of the church of St. Mark at Venice, were cast during the reign of Nero. The beautiful Antinous is one of the most perfect statues of the age of Adrian.

The most Illustrious Sculptors of Modern Times.-Earlier Period.-1. Italian Sculptors. In the eleventh century, we find mention of a sculptor named Buono, in the twelfth, of Bonanno of Pisa. Niccolò Pisano, who died in 1270, was called the restorer of good taste in sculpture. Several works of his son Giovanni Pisani are still to be seen in Pisa. Andreas Orgagna, surnamed Buffalmaco, died in 1389. Luca della Robbia varnished his works in terra cotta, with great skill. Lorenzo Ghiberti, who died in 1455, was a very able master. His brazen gates at the Battisterio of Florence are celebrated. Michael Angelo declared them worthy to stand at the entrance of paradise. Dona tello (born at Florence 1383, died 1466) enriched Venice, Florence, Genoa and Faenza with his works; a bald-headed old man, made by him in Florence, is celebrated. He formed, for the church of St. Mark at Florence, the brazen statues of St. Peter, St. George and St. Mark; the latter is particularly memorable for the question of Michael Angelo: “Marco,

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perchè non mi parli?” (Mark, why dost thou not speak to me?) His brother Simon made one of the brazen gates of the church of St. Peter, and the sepulchre of Martin V, in the Lateran church. Andreas Pisano was an illustrious sculptor and engraver. Lorenzo Lotto, called Lorenzetto, was the first who endeavored to restore antiques. Andreas Verrocchio, from jealousy of his pupils Perugino and Leonardo da Vinci, abandoned painting. and devoted himself to sculpture. was the first who revived the art of modelling the busts of the deceased in sofi substances. Rustici, born at Florence, in 1470, was the disciple of Verrocchio, and afterwards of Leon. da Vinci. The latter taught him the art of modelling, of cutting marble, of casting in brass, and perspective. His most celebrated works are a Europa, a Leda, a Vulcan, and a Neptune. Michael Angelo Buonarotti (q. v. in his early youth, executed some astonishing works, as the head of an old woman, and the statue of Hercules. Particularly worthy of admiration are his Bacchus, the famous colossal statue of Julius II, for whose tomb he made three figures, among which is his famous Moses, his David, his Victory at Florence, and his statue of Night upon the tomb of Giulio de' Medici. Tatti, called after his birthplace Sansovino, born 1477, when a youth. at Rome, made a model of the Group of Laocoon, which, by Raphael's decision, obtained the prize, and was cast in bronze. He executed many works for Venice, among which the marble statues of the holy Virgin in St. Mark's, and of John the Baptist in the church at Casa Grande, are particularly celebrated. The ease of his drapery and the life of his statues are much admired. Baccio Bandinelli, born at Florence in 1487, vied with Buonarotti. had a great knowledge of anatomy; his manner is energetic but rude. He restored the right arm of Laocoon; his bassreliefs upon the tombs of Leo X and Clement VII, are famous. Benvenuto Cellini, born at Florence in 1500, was a sculptor, goldsmith and painter. Properzia Rossi, of Bologna, is the only celebrated female sculptor. Two angels in marble, which adorn the front of the church of St. Petronia, and several busts, were the foundation of her fame. She represented, with much skill and delicacy, the passion of Christ, and many figures of the apostles, upon peach-stones, in bass-relief. Eleven of these peach-stones are preserved in the gallery of the mar chese Grassi at Bologna. She studied the

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rules of architecture and perspective, and was an able painter and musician. An unhappy passion caused her early death, in 1530. She sculptured the melancholy story of her feelings in marble, and this bass-relief was her masterpiece. Guglielmo della Porta, of Milan, restored several antiques in Rome; he restored also the legs of the Farnese Hercules so well, that Buonarotti did not consider the genuine legs, which he found twenty-seven years after, superior. The beautiful statue of Justice upon the tomb of Paul III, in the church of St. Peter's, is by this master, as well as the four great prophets in the niches between the columns of the first colonnade of the same church. With Bernini, born at Naples, 1598, a second period of Italian sculpture begins. He was a man of uncommon genius, but his boldness, his imagination, and particularly his endeavors to please, generally seduced him into irregularities; he attempted to surpass natural beauty, particularly in the dimples in the cheeks. His St. Theresa and St. Bibiana were his masterpieces. Alessandro Algardi (q. v.), born at Bologna, was the rival of Bernini. He was a disciple of Ludovico Caracci; and the painter is often discoverable in his works. He was the founder of a numerous school. Domenico Guido, Antonio Raggi, Ercole Ferrata, and Gabr. Brunelli, are distinguished among the numerous disciples of the two last masters. Gonnelli, called the blind man of Cambassi, lost his eyesight in his twentieth year, and made himself a sculptor by feeling alone. He executed a statue of Cosmo I, grand-duke of Tuscany, in terra cotta. Tubi, born at Rome, 1630, sculptured much for France. He made the famous group upon the tomb of Turenne. Camillo Rusconi, born at Milan in 1658, was an admirer of the ancient works of art, and imitated them in a masterly manner. His masterpiece is the tomb of Gregory XIII, in St. Peter's. The attitude of his figures is majestic and beautiful; his style is pure, full of expression, fire and life. Angelo Rossi, born at Genoa in 1671, chiefly distinguished himself by his excellent reliefs. He followed rather the taste of the ancients than the style of Algardi, not cutting so deep, but forming rather demi-reliefs. His work of this kind, for the tomb of Alexander VIII, is the finest bass-relief in St. Peter's. Gaetano Zumbo, born at Syracuse, 1656, had no other master than his own genius. He carried the working in colored wax to great perfection. He made, for the grandduke of Tuscany, the famous representa

tion of putrefaction, showing all its stages in five corpses, colored after nature, with so much truth as to excite horror. A Birth of the Savior, and a Descent from the Cross, are among his masterpieces.

2. French Sculptors.-Jean Goujon, of Paris, is the first distinguished sculptor in France; and his most celebrated work is the fountain of the Nymphs, in the market-place des Innocents at Paris, which he began under Francis I, and finished in 1550, under Henry II. He was also an architect and an engraver. He perished, in 1572, in the massacre of St. Bartholomew's. Germain Pilon, of Paris, had much grace, but his style was often impure. He first accurately distinguished the various materials of the drapery. The group of the three Christian Virtues, in white marble, for the church of St. Celestine, is a noble work. Jean de Boulogne was born at Douay, in 1524. He went early to Rome, and was Buonarotti's disciple. He was on the point of leaving Rome on account of his poverty, when an, amateur at Florence gave him a piece of marble, out of which he formed a Venus, by which he gained celebrity. His most celebrated works are Sampson and a Philistine, at Florence, his colossal Neptune, and his Rape of the Sabine Women, in the same place, his flying Mercury, in brass, and his Jupiter Pluvius, the greatest colossus of modern art. His disciple Tacca made the horse for the statue of Henry IV, upon the Pont-neuf, and the equestrian statue of Philip IV, king of Spain, represented at full speed in Buen Retiro. Jacques Sarassin, born at Noyon, 1590, was educated in Rome, and united genius with taste and grace. The Caryatides, which adorn the great pavilion of the old Louvre, and the Group of Romulus and Remus in Versailles, are among his masterpieces. He founded a productive school, and died in 1660. François Anguier made the beautiful tomb of the duke of Montmorency, in the church of St. Mary at Moulins, and his brother Michael, the statues and reliefs of the Porte St. Denis. Théodon made the beautiful statue of St. John in the Lateran, and the two Groups in the garden of the Tuileries, Atlas transformed into a rock, and Phaetusa changed into a poplar tree. He died in 1680. Lerambert made several groups for Versailles. Puget, born at Marseilles, in 1622, was a painter, architect and sculptor. If he had more carefully studied the antique models, he would have surpassed all modern sculptors. His style was bold and powerful. His most

celebrated works are his two colossal Termini, in the city hall of Toulon, his statue of Milo in the park of Versailles, and his Dying Gladiator. The brothers Marsy, born in 1624 and 1628, at Cambray, made the statues of Bacchus and of Latona in bronze, at Versailles, and the famous Group of Horses at the bath of Apollo, in the same place. François Girardon, born at Troyes, in 1630, was the most celebrated sculptor of the age of Louis XIV. His equestrian statue of this king, twenty-one feet high, which stood formerly on the royal Place Vendome, was the first work of modern times, which was cast in a single piece. Most of the works of Girardon are formed after designs by Le Brun, and adorn the park of Versailles. Pierre le Gros, born at Paris, 1656, lived almost all his life in Rome, and is one of the best French artists. His most celebrated works are, a Roman Maid in the garden of the Tuileries, St. Dominic in the church of St. Peter's, the Group of St. Ignatius, and St. Theresa in the church of the Carmelites at Turin. He died in 1719, deeply mortified by the neglect of the academicians at Paris. Nicolas Coustou, born at Lyons, in 1658, had much taste and ease, but entirely a French manner. His brother Guillaume surpassed him, and finished, in bass-relief, the Passage of the Rhine,which the former had commenced. Edme Bouchardon's style was soft rather than elevated, more regular than bold. Lambert Adam, born at Nancy, in 1700, made the two statues, the Seine and Marne, eighteen feet high, at St. Cloud, and the Group of Neptune and Amphitrite at Versailles. His style is rude and wild. Lemoyne distinguished himself by his portraits: he was animated, but incorrect. René Slodz, born at Paris, in 1705, worked in a simple style of grandeur: few understood drapery better than he, yet his figures are not always correct. Baptiste Pigalle, born at Paris, 1714, owed his success entirely to his great industry. His Mercury and Venus are celebrated: the king of Prussia purchased them both. The celebrated tomb of marshal Saxe at Strasburg is his work. A Boy with a Cage, from which the bird had escaped, by its truth and expression, gained him universal approbation. He died in 1785. Etienne Falconet was invited to Petersburg, to make an equestrian statue of Peter the Great, in bronze. Mademoiselle Collot made the model of the head.

3. German Sculptors.-Long before Albert Dürer's time, some excellent sculptors flourished in the south of Germany,

whose industry and excellence are proved by their works, which adorn the churches, city halls and fountains of Nuremberg and other places. We even find marks of still more ancient sculpture, in the num berless equestrian figures and images of saints, which, in all the minsters, and particularly in that at Cologne, cover even the smallest turrets. The names of these masters are unknown; the first probably came from Byzantium. Albert Durer, whose genius embraced various departments of the fine arts, produced excellen works of sculpture, large and small, comprehending insulated figures, and figures in relief in wood and stone. Leonard Kern, born at Forchtenberg, in 1580, studied in Italy, and worked with much success in wood, stone and ivory. Gottfried Leygebe, born at Freistadt, in Silesia, 1630, died at Berlin, 1683, was the first who formed small equestrian figures, of cast iron. He represented the emperor Leopold I, at Copenhagen, Charles II of England, as St. George, at Dresden, and the elector Frederic William, as Bellerophon, at Berlin. Rauchmüller worked on the column of the holy Trinity at Vienna, which was finished 1693. Andreas von Schlüter, born at Hamburg, 1662, studied in Italy, chiefly the works of Buonarotti, and was invited to Berlin, where he adorned the arsenal and formed the model of the excellent equestrian statue of the elector Frederic William, which was cast, 1700, by John Jacobi. Balthasar Perinoser, born in 1650, in the district of Salzburg, died, 1732, at Dresden, has left many excellent works at Berlin, Dresden and Leipsic. There are also other German sculptors of note.

4. Dutch, English, Swedish and Russian Sculptors.-Francis Duquesnoy, born at Brussels, in 1594, known under the name il Fiamingo. He had, like Algardi, a peculiar genius for representing the beauty of children, and succeeded in flying and rising figures better than any one before him. He formed an intimate friendship with Poussin, and both gave themselves, with an unlimited devotion, to art. His Andrew, twenty-two palms high, in St. Peter's at Rome, is one of the finest statues there; and his Susanna at Loretto is much admired on account of the noble attitude of the figure, its mild, pious expression, and beautiful drapery. Buyster, Slodz, Quellius and Van Obstal were Dutch sculptors of merit. Cibber made the two excellent statues at the entrance of Bedlam, in London, representing melancholy and mad

ness. Gibbons, who died at London in 1721, chiefly distinguished himself in beautifully wrought and industriously finished ornaments. His flowers and birds are exceedingly tender. Wilton and Rysbrach worked particularly in the graceful style; the female figures of the latter are highly graceful. Nollekins had good attitudes, but little correctness. Among the Swedish sculptors we ought to mention, above all, Sergel. The Russian Pawloff was a portrait sculptor of reputation. Launitz, the disciple of Thorwaldsen, is distinguished in the present time.

5. Spanish Sculptors.-Sculpture has flourished in Spain since the eleventh century, and Aparicio of Castile made, as early as 1033, a bass-relief in gold and ivory, representing, in twenty-two divisions, the Hunt of St. Millan, which is preserved in the convent of Yuso, and is admirable for its proportions and grace. The convents and churches gave employment to the artists. A hundred and sixty distinguished Spanish sculptors are enumerated.

Latest Period.-Cavaceppi, in Rome, makes the transition to the great sculptors of the present time. Canova (q. v.), who died in 1822, was chiefly distinguished for grace of style and perfection of execution, as the Dane Thorwaldsen, in heroic figures, is superior to his contemporaries in the grandeur of the forms, and, above all, in strength of expression. Both united, reflect much splendor on the age, and in Thorwaldsen's works especially, much truth, united with a beautiful conception of nature, and a noble composition, is visible, so that he deserves to be called one of the greatest masters of all ages. We ought also to mention the names of Dannecker in Stuttgard, whose Ariadne equals the ancient in beauty, Schadow, Rauch and Tieck in Berlin, Chaudet and Houdon in Paris, Flaxman, Chantrey and Gahagan in London. Count Cicognara has published a continuation of the works of Winckelmann and Agincourt (Storia della Scultura dal suo Risorgimento in Italia, &c.) until Canova (2d ed., Prato, 1824, 4 vols., with copper-plates). We shall now add a few remarks on the technical part of sculpture.

Modelling. Before any object is executed in stone, it is the practice of sculptors to complete a representation of their design by modelling it in clay, or some other soft material. The genius of the artist is displayed altogether in the model; for the process of afterwards copying the model in stone is chiefly mechanical, and

may often be executed by another person, as well as by the sculptor himself. When a clay model is taken, if the proposed figure be large, a frame of wood or iron is erected, to give support to the limbs and different parts of the figure. Upon this frame a proper quantity of wet clay is distributed and wrought into the form of the intended statue. The moulding of the clay is performed with the hands and with various instruments of wood and ivory. When the model is complete, copies may be taken from it, either by casting them in plaster, or in metal, or by chiselling them in marble. To execute a statue in marble, which shall exactly correspond to a pattern or model, is a work of mechanical, rather than of inventive skill. It is performed by finding, in the block of marble, the exact situation of numerous points, corresponding to the chief elevations and cavities in the figure to be imitated, and joining these by the proper curves and surfaces at the judgment of the eye. These points are found by measuring the height, depth, and lateral deviation of the corresponding points in the model; after which, those in the block are found by similar measurements. Sometimes the points are ascertained by placing the model horizontally under a frame, and suspending a plumb-line successively from different parts of the frame, till it reaches the parts of the figure beneath it. Sometimes an instrument is used consisting of a movable point, attached by various joints to an upright post, so that it may be carried to any part of the statue, and indicate the relative position of that part in regard to the post. Machines have also been contrived for cutting any required figure from a block, the cutting instrument being directed by a gauge, which rests upon the model in another part of the machine. Marble is wrought to the rough outline of the statue by the chisel and hammer, aided by the occasional use of drills and other perforating tools. It is then smoothed with rasps and files, and, when required, is polished with pumice stone and putty. The hair of statues is always finished with the chisel; and for this object, very sharp instruments, with different points and edges, are necessary. The ancient sculptors appear to have relied almost wholly upon the chisel, and to have used that instrument with great boldness and freedom, such as could have been justified only by consummate skill in the art. The moderns, on the contrary, approach the surface of the statue with great caution, and em