by Ammianus styled the Megæra, or 'fury of her sex; and he adds that her ambition was equal to her cruelty. Thus all the provinces and cities in the east were filled with blood and misery. No man, however innocent, was sure to live or enjoy his estate a whole day; for, Gallus's temper being equally suspicious and cruel, those who had any private enemies took care to accuse them of crimes against the state. At last the emperor being informed from all quarters of his conduct, and also that he aspired to the sovereignty, resolved upon his ruin. He wrote letters to Gallus and Constantina, inviting them both into Italy, and they durst not venture to disobey the emperor's express command. Constantina, who was well acquainted with her brother's temper, set out first, leaving Gallus at Antioch: but she had scarcely entered the province of Bithynia, when she was seized with a fever which put an end to her life. Gallus, now despairing of being able to appease his sovereign, thought of openly revolting; but most of his friends deserted him, so that he was at last obliged to submit unreservedly to Constantius. He advanced, therefore, according to his orders; but at Pitavium was arrested, and stripped of all the ensigns of dignity. Thence he was carried to Flanona, in Dalmatia. He confessed most of the crimes laid to his charge; but urged as an excuse the evil councils of his late wife. The emperor, provoked at this plea, and instigated by the enemies of Gallus, signed a warrant for his execution. All this time the emperor had been engaged in a war with the Germans; and, though he gained no advantage, the barbarians thought proper to make peace with him. This, however, was but short lived. No sooner was the Roman army withdrawn, than they began to make new inroads. Against them Constantius despatched Arbetio with the flower of the army; but he fell into an ambuscade, and was put to flight with great loss. This, however, was soon retrieved by the valor of Arintheus, who became famous in the reign of Valens, and of two other officers, who falling upon the enemy, without waiting the orders of their general, put them to flight, and obliged them to leave the Roman territory. The tranquillity of the empire, which ensued on this repulse of the Germans, was soon interrupted by a pretended conspiracy, but by which in the end a true one was produced. Sylvanus, a leading man among the Franks, commanded in Gaul, and had there performed great exploits against the barbarians. He had been raised to his post by Arbetio, only with a design to remove him from the emperor's presence, in order to accomplish his ruin, which he did in the following manner: one Dynames, leaving Gaul, begged of Sylvanus letters of recommendation to his friends at court; which being granted, the traitor erased all but the subscription. He then inserted directions to the friends of Sylvanus for the carrying on a conspiracy; and delivering these forged letters to the prefect Lampridius, they were by him shown to the emperor. Thus Sylvanus was in a manner forced into revolt, and caused himself to be proclaimed emperor. In the mean time, Dynames having forged another letter, the fraud was discovered, and an enquiry

set on foot, which brought to light the whole matter. Sylvanus was declared innocent, and letters sent to him by the emperor confirming him in his post: they were scarcely despatched, when the news arrived of Sylvanus having revolted. Thunder-struck at this news, Constantius despatched against him Ursicinus, an officer of great valor, who, pretending to be Sylvanus's friend, cut him off by treachery. The barbarians, who had been hitherto kept quiet by the brave Sylvanus, no sooner heard of his death than they broke, with greater fury than ever, into Gaul; and took and pillaged about forty cities, and among the rest Cologne, which they levelled with the ground; while the Quadi and Sarmatians, entering Pannonia, destroyed every thing with fire and sword. The Persians overran, without opposition, Armenia and Mesopotamia: Prosper and Mausonianus, who had succeeded in the government of the east, being more intent upon pillaging than defending the provinces committed to them. Constantius, not thinking it advisable to leave Italy, raised his cousin Julian to the dignity of Cæsar.

Julian seems to have been a man of extraordinary talents; for though hitherto entirely buried in obscurity, and conversant only with books, no sooner was he placed at the head of an army than he behaved with the greatest bravery and skill. He was appointed governor of Gaul; but before he set out Constantius gave him in marriage his sister Helena. He, however, limited his authority; gave him written instructions how to behave; ordered the generals who served under him to watch his actions, and strictly enjoined Julian himself not to give any largesses to the soldiery. Julian set out from Milan on the 1st of December 355, the emperor himself accompanying him as far as Pavia; whence he pursued his journey to the Alps, attended only by 360 soldiers. On his arrival at Turin he was first acquainted with the loss of Cologne. He arrived at Vienne before the end of the year 355. In 356 the barbarians besieged Autun. Julian marched to his relief, but found the siege raised: on which he pursued the barbarians to Auxerre and Troies, and put them to flight with a handful of men. From Troies he hastened to Rheims, where the main body of the army, commanded by Marcellus, awaited his arrival. Thence he took his route towards Decempagi (now Dieuze), on the Seille in Lorrain, to oppose the Germans who were ravaging that province. But the enemy attacking his rear had nearly cut off two legions. A few days after he defeated the Germans, though with great loss to his own army: the victory, however, opened him a way to Cologne. Here he caused the ancient fortifications to be repaired, and the houses rebuilt; after which he took up his winter quarters at Sens. Constantius entered Germany on the side of Rhætia, laid waste the country far and wide; and obliged the barbarians to sue for peace. He euacted two laws: 1. declaring idolatry capital; and, 2. granting the effects of condemned persons to their children and relations within the third degree. In the beginning of 357 the barbarians besieged Julian a whole month in Sens: Marcellus, the commander-in-chief, never once offering to assist

him. Julian, however, so valiantly defended himself with the few forces he had that the barbarians at last retired. After this Constantius declared Julian commander-in-chief of all the forces in Gaul; appointing under him one Severus, an officer of great experience, and of a quite different disposition from Marcellus. On his arrival Julian raised new troops, and supplied them with arms which he found in an old arsenal. The emperor, resolving to put a stop to the terrible devastations committed chiefly by the Alemans, wrote to Julian to march directly against them. At the same time he sent Barbatio, the successor of Sylvanus, with 25,000 or 30,000 men, out of Italy, in order to enclose the enemy between two armies. The Leti, however, a German nation, passing between the armies, advanced as far as Lyons, hoping to surprise that wealthy city; but, meeting with a warmer reception than they expected, contented themselves with ravaging the country all round it. On the first notice of this expedition Julian detached strong parties to guard the passages through which he knew the barbarians must return. Thus they were all cut off except those who marched near the camp of Barbatio; who was so far from cutting off their retreat that he complained by a letter to Constantius of some officers for attempting it. These officers, among whom was Valentinian, afterwards emperor of the west, were, by the orders of Constantius, cashiered for their disobedience. The other barbarians either fortified themselves in the countries which they had seized, or took shelter in the islands formed by the Rhine. Julian resolved first to attack the latter; and with this view demanded some boats of Barbatio; but he, instead of complying with his request, immediately burnt his boats, as he did on another occasion the provisions which had been sent to both armies, after he had plentifully supplied his own. Julian, not in the least disheartened with this unaccountable conduct, persuaded some of the most resolute of his men to wade over to one of the islands. Here they killed all the Germans who had taken shelter in it. They then seized their boats, and pursued the slaughter in several other islands, till the enemy abandoned them all, and retired, with their wives and booty, to their respective countries. On their departure Barbatio attempted to form a bridge of boats on the Rhine; but the enemy, apprised of his intention, threw a great number of huge trees into the river; which, being carried by the stream against the boats, sunk several of them. The Roman general then retired; but the barbarians, falling unexpectedly upon him, cut off great numbers of his men, and returned loaded with booty. Elated with this success they assembled in great numbers under the command of Chnodomarius, a prince of great renown among them, and six other kings. They encamped in the neighbourhood of Strasburg. Here they were encountered by Julian, who put them to flight with the loss of 6000 or 8000 of their men slain in the field, and a greater number drowned in the river; while Julian himself lost only 243 men and four tribunes. In this action Chnodomarius was taken and sent to Rome, where he soon after died. After the battle Julian advanced

with all his army to Mayence, where he built a bridge over the Rhine, and, having with difficulty prevailed upon his army to follow him, entered Germany. Here he ravaged the country, till, being prevented by snow from advancing, he began to repair the fort of Trajan, about three or four leagues from Frankfort. The barbarians, now alarmed, sent deputies to treat of a peace; but this Julian refused to grant upon any terms. He consented, however, to a truce of seven months, upon their promising to store with provisions the fort he was building. In 358 he took the field against the Franks, who were divided into several tribes, the most powerful of which were the Salii and Chamavi. The first of these he soon subdued; after which he allotted them lands in Gaul, incorporating great numbers into his cavalry. He next marched against the Chamavi, whom he defeated and obliged to retire beyond the Rhine. Afterwards he rebuilt three forts on the Meuse, which had been destroyed by the barbarians; but, wanting provisions, he ordered 600 or 800 vessels to be built in Britain to bring corn from thence into Gaul. Julian continued in the country of the Chamavi till the expiration of his truce with the Alemans, and then, laying a bridge of boats over the Rhine, entered their country with fire and sword. At last two of their kings came in person to sue for peace; which Julian granted on their promising to set at liberty the captives they had taken; to supply a certain quantity of corn when required; and to furnish wood, iron, and carriages, for repairing the cities they had ruined. The prisoners released amounted to upwards of 20,000. Soon after the vernal equinox Constantius marched against the Quadi and Sarmatians, whose country lay beyond the Danube. Having crossed that river he laid waste the territories of the Sarmatians; who thereupon came in great numbers, together with the Quadi, pretending to sue for peace. Their true design was to surprise the Romans; but the latter, suspecting it, fell upon them sword in hand. This obliged the rest to sue for peace in earnest, which was granted on the delivery of hostages. The emperor then marched against the Limigantes, i. e. the slaves who, in 334, had driven the Sarmatians out of their country. They used the same artifice as the Sarmatians and Quadi had done, coming in great numbers to the emperor under pretence of submission, but prepared to fall upon him unexpectedly. Observing their manner, and distrusting them, he caused his troops to surround them insensibly while he was speaking. The Limigantes then displeased with the conditions he offered them, laid their hands on their swords: on which they were attacked by the soldiers; and, finding it impossible to escape, made with great fury towards the tribunal, where they were cut in peices. After this the emperor ravaged their territories, and obliged them to quit the country, which was then restored to the Sarmatians. This year a haughty embassy arrived from Sapor king of Persia, with a letter, in which that monarch styled himself king of kings, brother of the sun and moon,' &c., acquainting the emperor that, though he might insist on having all the countries beyond the Strymon in Macedon

parted for Antioch; and on the 1st of January, 363, renewed in that city the sacrifices of Jupiter for the safety of the empire. During his stay he continued his preparations for the Persian war, consulting the oracles, aruspices, magicians, &c. Those of Delphi, Delos, and Dodona, assured him of victory. The aruspices, indeed, and most of his courtiers and officers, did all that lay in their power to divert him from his expedition; but the flattering answers of the oracles, and the desire of adding the Persian monarch to the many kings he had already seen humbled at his feet, prevailed. Many nations sent deputies offering their assistance; whose offers he rejected, telling them that the Romans were to assist their allies, but stood in no need of any assistance from them. He likewise rejected, and in a very stern manner, the offers of the Saracens; answering, when they complained of his stopping the pension paid them by other emperors, that a warlike prince had steel, but no gold. However, he wrote to Arsaces, king of Armenia, enjoining him to keep his troops in readiness to execute the orders he should transmit to him. Julian now sent orders to his troops to cross the Euphrates, designing to enter the enemy's country before they had notice of his march; and proceeded himself to Litarba. Thence he went to Berea, where he halted a day, and exhorted the council to restore the worship of the gods; as he did also at Batnæ; and was well pleased with the inhabitants for having before his arrival restored that worship. He now pursued his journey to Hierapolis, the capital of Euphratesiana, which he reached on the 9th of March. As he entered this city, fifty of his soldiers were killed by the fall of a porch. He left Hierapolis on the 13th of March; and, having passed to Euphrates on a bridge of boats, came to Batna a city of Osrhoene, about ten leagues from Hierapolis. From Batnæ he proceeded to Carrhæ; where, in the famous temple of the moon, it is said he sacrificed a woman. While he continued in this city, he received advice that a party of the enemy's horse had broken into the Roman territories: on which he resolved to leave an army in Mesopotamia, while he ad. vanced on the other side of the country into the Persian dominions. This army consisted, according to some, of 20,000, others say of 30,000, chosen troops. It was commanded by Procopius, and Sebastian, a famous Manichean who had been governor of Egypt. These two were to join Arsaces king of Armenia, to lay waste the plains of Media, and meet the emperor in Assyria. To Arsaces Julian himself wrote, threatening to treat him as a rebel if he did not execute the orders given him; and telling him that the God he adored would not be able to screen him from his indignation. There were two roads leading from Carrhæ to Persia; the one to the left by Nisibis; the other to the right through Assyria, along the banks of the Euphrates. Julian chose the latter, but caused magazines to be erected on both roads; and, after having viewed his army, set out on the 25th of March. He passed the Abora, which separated the Roman and Persian dominions, near its conflux with the Euphrates; after which he broke down

the bridge, that his troops might not desert. As he proceeded on his march, a soldier and two horses were struck dead by lightning; and a lion of an extraordinary size was despatched by the soldiers. These omens occasioned great disputes among the aruspices. Having passed the Abora, Julian entered Assyria, which he laid waste; a step which was judged very impolitic. As he met with no army to oppose him, he advanced to the walls of Ctesiphon, the metropolis of the Parthian empire; and here, having caused the canal to be cleared, formerly dug by Trajan, he conveyed his fleet to the banks of the Tigris, passed that river, and drove the enemy into the city with the loss of a great number of men: he himself, in the mean time, losing only seventyfive. Julian had now advanced so far into the enemy's country that he found it necessary to think of a retreat, as it was impossible for him to winter there. For this reason he made no attempt on Ctesiphon, but began to march back along the banks of the Tigris. In the mean time the king of Persia was assembling a formidable army; but, desirous of putting an end to so destructive a war, sent very advantageous proposals of peace to Julian. These he imprudently rejected; and soon after, deceived by treacherous guides, quitted the river, and entered into an unknown country totally laid waste by the enemy. A still worse step he was persuaded to take by these guides, viz. to burn his fleet, lest it should fall into the hands of the enemy. As soon as it was set on fire, the whole army cried out that the emperor was betrayed, and that the guides were traitors. Julian ordered them immediately to be put on the rack, upon which they confessed the treason; but it was too late. The fleet was in flames, and no part was saved except twelve vessels designed to be made use of in the building of bridges. The emperor thus finding himself in a strange country, and his army greatly dispirited, called a council, in which it was resolved to proceed for Corduene south of Armenia. But they had not proceeded far when they were met by the king of Persia, at the head of a very numerous army. Several sharp encounters took place; and, though the Persians were always defeated, the Romans reaped no advantages, being reduced to the last extremity for want of provisions. In one of these attacks, when the Romans were suddenly assailed, the emperor, eager to repulse the enemy, hastened to the field without his army, when he received a mortal wound by a dart, which pierced through his side to his liver. Of this wound he died the same night, 26th of June, 363, in the thirty-second year of his age, after having reigned scarcely twenty months.

JOVIAN. AS Julian had declined naming any successor, the army unanimously chose Jovian, a very able commander, whose father had lately resigned the post of comes domesticorum. The valor and experience of Jovian, however, were not sufficient to extricate the Roman army from the difficulties in which they had been plunged. Famine raged in the camp to such a degree that not a single man would have been left had not the Persians unexpectedly sent proposals of peace, which were received with great joy. The