ed to regulate our foreign trade, was the laying of duties upon foreign goods, with a view to check the excessive importation of them, and to encourage and aid our own citizens in supplying the deficiency by manufacturing for themselves. This appears farther from the fact, that congress exercised this power immediately. The first law but one passed under the present constitution, authorized "duties to be laid on goods, wares and merchandises imported," and for purposes, one of which was declared to be, "the encouragement and protection of domestic manufactures." It was by such regulations of her foreign trade that England had so strengthened her manufacturing interest, and acquired such advantages over other nations; and it was intended, by the adoption of a similar policy, to render this country less dependent upon others.

§ 7. It may be proper, however, here to observe, that for many years congress did not find it necessary to exercise this power to a very great extent. Soon after the constitution went into effect, the principal nations of Europe became engaged in war, in which England also became involved. A large portion of the population of those countries having been withdrawn from agricultural pursuits to serve in the armies, a foreign demand was created for the productions of our soil, and our people were enabled to supply themselves at less disadvantage with manufactures from abroad.

§ 8. But after peace had been restored in Europe, and the people had returned to their wonted employment, the principal foreign demand for our bread-stuffs ceased, and the severe effects of large importations of goods began again to be experienced. Congress now deeming it necessary to exercise, to a greater extent, its power to regulate trade by discouraging importations and encouraging domestic manufactures, commenced an effective system of protection in the year 1816. Although duties were imposed upon many articles, the great interest encouraged by the act of that year, was the maufacture of cotton goods, especially those of the coarser kinds.

§ 9. Since that period, laws have from time to time been passed, extending the like favor to the manufacture of iron and iron wares, woolen, and a great variety of other goods.

Manufacturing is now carried on very extensively in this country; our citizens being supplied in great part-with some articles almost exclusively-by our own manufacturers. A large portion of the people having thus been drawn into manufacturing and mechanical employments, and become consumers instead of producers of agricultural products, a market has been created at home demanding more of the grain, meat, and other products of agricultural labor, than is usually required to supply all foreign demand.

§ 10. Whether this is a wise measure for regulating the commerce of a nation, and how far our country is indebted to this policy for its general prosperity, are questions upon which statesmen differ in opinion-questions which it is not the design of this work to discuss. The above facts have been given principally to explain the objects of the power to regulate foreign commerce, and to show how and for what purposes it has been exercised.

11. Congress has power also "to regulate commerce among the several states." Without this power, each state might adopt regulations favorable to its own citizens, and injurious to the people of other states. This was actually done under the confederation; and to restore and preserve harmony, and to secure equal justice to the citizens of all the states, which could be done only by one uniform system for the whole, this power was given to the general govern

ment.

§ 12. Under the power to regulate commerce, congress has also made navigation laws — laws relating to the shipping of the nation. These laws require vessels to be measured, to ascertain how much they hold; and prescribe the manner in which they are enrolled or registered, and licensed, and in which they are to enter and leave ports; and the duties of the masters of vessels, declaring what papers they are to carry, &c.

§13. These regulations are especially necessary for the collection of the revenue arising from foreign commerce. There is, in every port of entry, a collector of customs, whe superintends the collection of duties. When a vessel arrives, it is submitted, with the cargo, and all papers and invoices, to the inspection of the proper officers; and the goods sul

ject to duty are all weighed or measured, and the duties estimated according to law.

14. On some articles a specific duty is charged, which is a duty of a certain amount on a pound, yard, or gallon; as, two cents on a pound of iron, or fifty cents on a yard of cloth. Others are charged with an ad valorem duty, which means a duty according to the value, being a certain per centage on the value of an article; as forty per cent. on what costs one dollar, would be forty cents; or thirty per cent. on every hundred dollars would be thirty dollars. In certain cases, tonnage duties are charged upon foreign vessels, which are duties of a certain amount per ton of the measurement of such vessels.

§ 15. All this business requires a vast amount of labor. Such is the extent of our foreign commerce at present, as to demand the employment of nearly five hundred men in business connected with the importation of goods and the collection of customs, in the city of New York alone. The amount derived from customs or duties in the United States annually, is much varied by contingent causes. The average annual amount of receipts for the last ten years is about $25,000,000. Besides this a considerable sum is annually received into the treasury from the sale of public lands. These two sources produce nearly the whole revenue of the nation; from which are paid the salaries of officers, and other expenses of the general government.

EXERCISES.

§ 1. What was the state of trade between this country and Great Britain after the war of the revolution?

§ 2, 3. Can you show, by examples, how the taxing of American produce operated to the injury of this country and the benefit of Great Britain ?

§4. Why could no relief to the country be provided at that time?

§ 5. What unsuccessful attempt was made to provide a remedy? How was the power obtained to counteract the effects of British policy?

§ 6. What two powers were given to congress for this

purpose? By the exercise of what power did congress attempt to regulate our foreign trade?

§ 7. What cause rendered the exercise of this power for a time less necessary?

§ 8. How was this country affected by the restoration of peace in Europe? What measure was adopted by congress in 1816 ?

§ 9. What has since been the policy of our government? and what is the present condition of the agricultural, manufacturing, and commercial interests of the country?

§ 10. Do you suppose the general prosperity of the country has been advanced by these measures of the govern

ment?

§ 11. Why was it necessary that congress should also have the power to regulate trade between the states ?

§ 12, 13. What are the nature and necessity of navigation laws? Who superintends the collection of duties? § 14. What different kinds of duties are laid on goods? Define specific, ad valorem, and tonnage duties.

§ 15. About what amount is annually received from customs? From what other source is our national revenue derived?

CHAPTER LI.

Powers of Congress, Continued.

§ 1. ANOTHER power given to congress, is the power "to establish a uniform rule of naturalization.' It has already been stated, that foreigners, or aliens, are not entitled to the privileges of citizens till they become naturalized.. Before the constitution was adopted; every state established its own rules for naturalizing foreigners. But as a person, on being made a citizen in any state, becomes a citizen of the United States, it is evident that there should be but one rule of naturalization.

§ 2. An alien must have lived in the United States five years before he can become a citizen. Two years before

he is admitted as a citizen, he must declare, on oath, in writing, before a proper court, that he intends to become a citizen of the United States, and to renounce his allegiance to his former government; and he must declare, on oath, that he will support the constitution of the United States. Then, two years thereafter, the court, if satisfied as to his moral character and his attachment to the constitution, may admit him as a citizen.

§ 3. On his being naturalized, a man's minor children, if dwelling in the United States, also become citizens. If a man has lived at least three years in the United States before he becomes of age, he may, at the expiration of the five years' residence, be admitted by the court, without having previously made a declaration of his intention to become a citizen.

§ 4. The power "to coin money and regulate the value thereof," is properly given to congress. Formerly the system of reckoning was by pounds, shillings, and pence; the value of which was different in different states. For instance, in the New-England states, six shillings made a dollar, in New-York eight, in Pennsylvania seven shillings and sixpence. This rendered dealing between the people of different states highly inconvenient. The present decimal mode of calculation, by dollars and cents, established by congress, together with the use of decimal coins, has removed the former inconvenience.

5. Money is coined at the mint, which is in Philadelphia. The business of coining is under the superintendence of a director. The principal persons employed under him are a treasurer, an assayer, a chief coiner, an engraver, and a melter and refiner. The gold and silver before it is coined, is called bullion. Individuals, as well as the government, may get money coined at the mint. Gold and silver are also coined at New-Orleans; and gold, to some extent, is coined at some place in North-Carolina, and at another in Georgia.

§ 6. Another power of congress is "to promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing, for limited times, to authors and inventors, the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries," Useful arts and sciences are much