grade schools; the study of those trades in which the material for manual training in the schools may be found; the preparation of teachers of manual work. The section resolved that manual training ought not to be mixed up with the teaching of trades, but should be regarded as a general educational subject of great importance for physical education, and as one salutary in its influence upon the intellectual and moral advance of the pupils.

As is shown in these discussions, the subject of manual training is quite a recent one in Russia, but such training is liable to be successfully carried out, for the minister of public instruction and the Russian people realize the benefits to accrue from its becoming a part of the school programme. It is observed that the majority of the speakers agree that it should be introduced in a general course of instruction, but that the development, both physical and intellectual, should be in accordance with the needs of the locality, and in a measure preparatory to any trade which might afterwards be taken up. Stress was also laid upon the consideration of manual training as constituting the gymnastic of the will, experience having demonstrated that it develops both energy and independence. In regard to its introduction in secondary schools the congress indicated its manifest approval of manual training as a supplementary branch to the usual course, for by this means the higher classes of society, who are to be found in greater numbers in this grade of school, would learn to respect work, and thus a sentiment for the beautiful in the domain of form would be cultivated.

It was decided by the congress to request the establishment of a commission to investigate the points more especially brought out during the discussions. Later information indicates that the commission has already commenced its work, and that it will report to the second congress for the study of technical and industrial instruction which is to be held in Moscow in 1893.

AUTHORITIES CONSULTED.

Опьіть систематическаго оьозрѣнія матеріаловъ къ изученію современнаго состоянія среднкго и визшаго техническаго и ремесленнаго образованія въ Россіи И. А. Анопова.

Съѣздъ русскихъ дѣятелей по техническому и профессіональному образованію въ Россін. 18891890. Общая часть.

Almanac de Gotha, 1891, 1892.

Buisson. Dictionnaire de Pédagogie et d'Instruction primaire, vol. 2, pt. 1, and vol. 1, pt. 1.

Revue Encyclopédique, Dec. 1, 1891: La Russie.

Rapports du Jury International, Exposition Universelle Internationale de 1889 à Paris: Rapport de M. Buisson.

Rambaud, Alfred. Histoire de la Russie.

Hippeau, C. L'Instruction publique en Russie.

Tolstoi, Léon. Le Progrès de l'Instruction publique en Russie.

Tolstoi, Léon. La Liberté dans l'Ecole.

Revue Pédagogique Belge, Jan. 15, 1891.

Schmid, K. Encyclopædie des Erziehungs- und Unterrichtswesens, v. 7.

Lindner, C. A. Encyclopädisches Handbuch der Erziehungskunde.

Bericht über den Stand des Unterrichtswesens 1879-1884.

Lehrplan der russianhar Gymnasien, von G. Edl. v. Hayek.

Die Reform der Russischen Universitäten nach dem Gesetz vom 23. August 1884. Boletin de la Institucion libre de Enseñanza, August 31, 1890.

La Riforma Universitaria, December 8, 1890.

Wallace, Mackenzie. Russia.

Encyclopædia Britannica, volume 21.

Statesman's Year Book, 1891, 1892.

Stepniak: Under the Tsars.

Fortnightly Review, 1891.

London Journal of Education, May, 1891.

Darkest Russia, June 30, 1892.

Articles on Russia by Miss F. Toulmin Smith and Dr. Himowich.

Miscellaneous Scrap Books.

CHAPTER IX.

THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF JAPAN.1

Constitutional Empire (since February 11, 1889); area, 147,655 square miles; population 40,072,020 (January 1, 1890); capital, Tokio; population, 1,389,684; minister of state for education, Count Oki Takato.

ADMINISTRATION AND HISTORY.

The archipelago of Japan comprises 3,850 islands, four of which, Hondo, Kiushiu, Shikoku, and Yezo, rank as the most important. Its territorial organization is divided into 85 provinces, 42 urban and 804 rural districts, 1,111 towns, and 13,374 villages (1890).

The administration of the provinces is regulated from the three Fus, or imperial cities, Tokio, Kioto, and Osaka, and from the forty-three Kens, or prefectoral divisions of the Empire. For still further local administration there are Ku and Gun, or subdivisions into cities or wards, and counties, and, since April 1, 1889, an imperial decree has established minor offices which deal almost entirely with the administration of municipality, town and village. This further carries out the principle of decentralization and self-government and is to be applied gradually according to the circumstances and requirements of the localities.

The Hokkaido, or Northern Province, has a special organization of its own, a governor and an administrative board. According to the constitution of February 11, 1889, the Emperor controls all the administrative affairs of the Empire, exercising executive power with the assistance of his ministers and privy council, and legislative power with the consent of the two legislative bodies, or Imperial Diet, which controls the finances and the administration of justice. Provincial affairs are controlled by the governors, one for each Fu or Ken, but they in turn receive directions from the cabinet. The minor officers in the

1

Prepared by Miss Frances Graham French.

In 1889 the population was divided among the various classes as follows: Imperial family, 46; Kwazoku or nobles, 3,825; Shizoku or knights (formerly retainers of the Daimios) 38,074,558; common people, 1,993,637. The number of foreigners in 1890 was 9,063; of these 4,975 Chinese, 1,701 English, 899 Americans, 550 Germans, 312 French. The number of Japanese residents abroad in 1889 was 18,688.

various territorial subdivisions referred to above are under the superintendence of the governors, and in the wards and villages the reports as to administrative affairs are made to an intermediary who himself refers affairs to the governor.

The history of the Empire from the founding of the dynasty of Jimmu (660 B. C.) through years of a feudal system may be divided into four periods-the first, a purely local one, ending with the landing of the Portuguese in 1543; the second, from 1543 to 1638 including the introduction of Catholicism into Japan and the final ordering away of all foreigners from the country, as their presence came to be considered detrimental to the political system and to the religions of Japan (i. e., Shintoism and Buddhism); the third, from 1638 to 1854, continuing the exclusion of foreigners and being distinguished by the Dutch monopoly; the fourth, since 1854, includes the establishing of commercial treaties. with foreign powers, the sending of enlightened statesmen to European and other countries to study advanced civilization in the most progressive nations, and as a result of such study follows the consequent development of a more liberal form of government. Ethnologists differ as to the origin of the people of these islands, but it is stated that the modern Japanese race is a commingling of a people which came from Southern Asia and the Malay Archipelago with the Corean and Chinese peoples.

The religions are that of Shintoism or worship of the sun goddess (the spiritual emperor being considered the direct descendant, and every district having its patron saint or kami), and the Buddhistic, which, introduced in the sixth century, is considered a more modern creed. The literati believe in the system of morals and the philosophy of Confucius. The literature of Japan includes original writings and translations and the whole circle of Chinese Confucian literature. The Chinese classics, indeed, form the basis of the literature, system of ethics, and highest type of thought of the Japanese people. In tracing the history of the nation, one clearly sees a marked development along educational lines. As early as 285 A. D. a Corean came to Japan and taught the heir apparent Chinese letters and the ethics of Confucius. In 552 Corean missionaries introduced books, the writings of the Chinese classics, and Buddhistic images and canon. This was a noticeable period from the educational standpoint. Officials and the nobility learned to read and write, and literary, governmental, and historical records were soon compiled. The religious development, combined with its attendant schoolmasters, was the means of creating a limited class of readers, and from the sixth century on education and Buddhism seemed to move on together. Kobo, a priest and schoolmaster, who lived from 774 to 835, was learned in the Pali, Sanscrit, and Chinese languages, and was credited with being the inventor of the Japanese alphabet. To him is due the national success of Buddhism, as he developed a system of theology in which Buddhism absorbed Shintoism. Following him came Sugarawa

Michizané (died 903 A. D.), who also aided in the advancement of literature and education. From that date to the twelfth century the Emperor (or, as he is usually called, the Mikado' or Golden Gate,) ruled supreme from Mara to Kioto, which were well known political and educational centers. With the year 1192 commenced the period of the Shoguns (tycoons), which was that of a dual government with two rulers, two capitals, and two centers of authority. This duarchy lasted until 1868, when the Shogunate was overthrown. The principle of duality was also carried out in the Japanese language, for there were two distinct alphabets, the Chinese ideographic symbols and the phonetic alphabet.

The former is especially in use in the higher class of books and in diplomatic documents; the latter has been subject to great variation, but from it has developed a simpler alphabet known as the Katagana characters. Evidence of intellectual activity was apparent as early as 1333, for, dating from that period, are chronicled the establishment of monastic schools and the general spread of Buddhistic doctrines; then followed a period favorable to the Jesuits but less so to the Buddhists. During the years 1532-1582 a reaction was apparent, and where formerly the nobles only were educated there developed a centralization of the feudal system at Yedo, and an extending of educational facilities to all classes throughout the Empire. The basis of the culture manifest from 1604 to 1868 was found in the study of the Chinese classics of Confucius and Mencius. Native literature was largely studied, and the fundamentals of education, reading, writing, and the abacus were generally taught. At date of 1854 it was reported that seven-tenths of the people could read and write, and there were military, gymnastic, and normal schools, universities, and private schools in various sections of Japan. Both sexes were accorded equal educational privileges, and the people were gradually realizing the necessity of more direct communication with the outside world, and the introduction of a national system of education developed from the highest types found amongst other nations. The local government of the past was slowly yielding to broader modern influences and the more enlightened statesmen looked forward to the establishing of a more direct central power. The commercial treaties of 1854 and 1858 opened Japan to the outside world and more reliance could be placed on the information obtained in regard to the Japanese people. The statement in regard to earlier periods of history were often not to be relied upon, as many details had been left to mere hear

'The Mikado's right and authority are grounded on the belief in his divine descent. Honors conferred upon him were always considered the highest distinctions which could fall to the lot of any subject, not exceeding the all-powerful Shogun. The distinctions of class are especially noteworthy in Japan. These distinctions were a gradual outgrowth of feudalism. The groups are as follows: The Mikado house, with the court nobility (Kuge) in Kiôto, the military class, or Samurai, and the laboring class or the people (Heimin.)