The states, meantime, not only gave little attention to congressional requests or recommendations but quarreled among themselves over commerce, tariffs, and boundaries. New York taxed butter and eggs brought into the state from New Jersey; New Jersey retaliated by taxing the New York lighthouse on Sandy Hook. Maryland and Virginia quarreled over the navigation of Chesapeake Bay and the Potomac. South Carolina and Georgia were at swords' points over the control of the Savannah. New York and Connecticut actually fought for the possession of Vermont; while Vermont, denying that either state had any authority over her, took up arms to defend her soil from invaders. Conditions like these gradually brought home to thoughtful Americans the need for a better union and a stronger government if the country was to be saved from disaster.

Constitutional Convention (1787). At this time of crisiswhen it was uncertain whether we were to remain one nation or become thirteen-the Constitutional Convention met in Philadelphia. Composed of the ablest and most distinguished men in the country,-Washington, Madison, Hamilton, and Franklin were among its members,-it aroused the hope and confidence of the better class of people from the time its sessions began. Day after day and month after month, during the hot summer of 1787, it worked earnestly to draw up a plan for "a more perfect union," and in spite of serious disagreements and obstacles, by concessions here and compromises there it at last completed its task and submitted its work to the people. After a hard contest the Constitution was ratified, or accepted, by all the states and became henceforth "the supreme law of the land."

*The east room of Independence Hall is the most historic spot in America. Here in May, 1775, the Second Continental Congress assembled; here, a month later, George Washington was appointed commander in chief of the American forces; here, on July 4, 1776, the Declaration of Independence was signed; and here, during the summer of 1787, the Constitution of the United States was drafted. Various historic relics, including the famous Liberty Bell, are now kept in the building.

The greatness of the Constitution. The English statesman Gladstone declared the Constitution "the greatest work ever struck off at a given time by the brain and purpose of man.' By it, for the first time in history, there was established on a large scale that system of government known as federalism. Never before had any people set up over themselves by their own action a national government which derived all its powers from the consent of the governed. In these two respects-the federal system and democratic foundation-the Constitution of the United States was unique. For over a hundred and thirty years it has served us so well that it is not only the object of our own love and devotion but has been copied with modifications by many foreign lands.

CARPENTERS' HALL, PHILADELPHIA

In this hall the First Continental Congress met in 1774, and from 1791 to 1797 the building served as the home of the First United States Bank. With the exception of Independence Hall, probably no structure in America has a greater claim to fame.

The federal system. The plan of government provided by the Constitution, as stated above, is the federal system. Under it, as established in the United States, the people have set over themselves two governments-the national and the state-to each of which they have given certain powers and owe certain obligations. Each of these governments has authority over the matters which are intrusted to its charge; in its exercise of these powers the other government has no right to interfere.

1 Many things in the Constitution were based on colonial practices.

Thus the national government has power over the things which affect the welfare of the entire nation, while the state governments have authority over those which are of chief concern to the inhabitants of the individual states. Among the powers given to the national government are the management and control of foreign relations, immigration, army and navy, commerce between the states, the postal service, and the coinage of money. The states, on the other hand, have authority over marriage, divorce, mines, factories, education, and the local governments. In some instances the national and the state governments may exercise the same power; both, for example, may—and in some states do—levy an income tax.

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

1. Report on one of the following topics: New England Confederation; Penn's plan of union; Albany plan of union. How did each contribute to the growth of union in America? (Material can be found in any American history.)

2. What were the chief defects of the Articles of Confederation? How were they remedied in the Constitution?

3. What is a federal republic? How does the relation of a state to the United States differ from the relation of a county to a state?

4. Compare the national constitution with the constitution of your state as to (1) length, (2) arrangement, and (3) character of provisions.

5. Is the method of amending the Constitution too difficult? Give reasons for your answer. How can the constitution of Great Britain be amended? of France? of Canada ?

6. How did the constitution of the Confederate States of America differ from that of the United States? (See Woodrow Wilson, Division and Reunion, pp. 242-244.)

7. What is the most difficult part of the Constitution to amend? (See Article V.)

8. What buildings, other than Independence Hall and Carpenters' Hall, are notable for their associations in American history?

SECTION II. THE NATIONAL LEGISLATURE

Composition of Congress. The Constitution places the chief lawmaking power of the national government in the hands of Congress. Congress is composed of two Housesthe Senate and the House of Representatives, both elected by the people. The Senate, or Upper House, consists of ninety-six senators-two from each state; in it the states have equal power. The House of Representatives, or Lower House, consists of four hundred and thirty-five members; in it the states are represented according to population. Thus the sparsely settled state of Nevada has as much power in the Senate as the great state of New York, with a population over one hundred times as great, but it has only one member in the House of Representatives, while New York has forty-three.

This difference in representation in the Senate and the House grew out of a serious dispute in the Constitutional Convention. Fearing the power of the large states, the small states, like Delaware and New Jersey, refused to support a new constitution unless they were given as much power in the new government as their large neighbors. After a sharp struggle a compromise was adopted, by which equal representation was provided in the Senate and representation according to population was established in the House. Thus the Senate may be said to represent the states, and the House of Representatives the nation.

Congressional sessions. The life, or duration, of any one Congress is limited to two years. Its term begins at noon on March 4 of the odd-numbered years. Unless it is previously called in special session by the president, however, its first session the "long" session-does not begin until the first Monday in the following December. This session usually continues until summer or fall, but it may last until it is time for the "short" session to begin. The "short" session opens on the first Monday in December of the