Brazil.

munities; and in the courts generally, whether civil or criminal, there prevails trial by jury. The budget of 1878-79 gave a revenue of 103,300,000 paper millreas, and expenditure, 107,732,068 (the paper millrea is about half the value of the silver coin, which is about 28.); the public debt in 1877 was 701,952,781 millreas-nearly £35,000,000. The standing army is fixed at 15,000 men on the peace-footing, and at 32,000 on the warfooting; and the standing naval force is fixed at 4000 men, which may be raised to 8000 in time of war. The navy in 1877 consisted of 56 vessels, including 53 steamers and 11 ironclads.

The population in 1872 amounted to 10,108,291 negroes, mulattoes, and Europeans, besides about 1.000,000 aboriginal Indians, who are here proportionally fewer than in most parts of South America. Of the total pop. 1,510,806 were slaves. The Africans continued to be imported till 1854, and their amalgamation with the Europeans produced perhaps the finest variety of the mulatto in the world. A law for the gradual emancipation of the slaves was passed in 1871. It enacts that henceforth the children born of slave women shall be "considered of free condition," but bound to serve the owners of their mothers for the term of 21 years, under the name of apprentices. Roman Catholicism is the prevailing religion. Notwithstanding the recent efforts of the legislature for the advancement of education, it is still very defective. In 1874, the attendance at the public schools was only 140,000.

But physically, as well as politically and socially, B. differs in many respects from most of the other divisions of the new continent. It knows nothing of the volcanoes and earthquakes of the Pacific coast; with winds blowing constantly from the Atlantic ocean, it is exempted from those droughts which are always blighting one or other of the slopes of the Andes, the remoter slope in Peru and Chili, and the nearer in Buenos Ayres and Patagonia; its mines, again, are as famous for gold and diamonds as those of the western Cordilleras for silver. In its hydrography, B. contrasts unfavorably with the other divisions. While the Amazon and the Plata, the Mississippi and the St. Lawrencenot to mention countless rivers of inferior magnitude on both shores-are for the most part practicable almost to their sources, the streams of B., with the exception of the Amazon, are mostly impeded throughout by cataracts and shallows, thus counterbalancing, as it were, its matchless seaward facilities by the deficiencies of its inland communications. Further, the most navigable of these streams, instead of entering the open sea, mingle their waters with those of the Plata or of the Amazon-the Parana and the Uruguay joining the former, and the Madera, the Tapajos, the Zingu, and the Tocantins, the latter; and even among those that do send their tribute at once to the ocean, a similar direction is sometimes impressed by the dividing ridges-the San Francisco, for instance, by far the largest of them, running to the northward parallel with the s.e. coast through 11° of lat., and leaving only 4 of long. for its remaining course to the Atlantic. A humid surface and a luxuriant vegetation conspire to render ordinary roads all but impassible. B. possessed, at the commencement of 1878, railways of a total length of 791 m., and it has also a system of telegraphs, the lines at the same date being 3875 m. in extent. Telegraphic communication has been established between B. and Europe; the first message was despatched by the cable to Lisbon, June 23, 1874.

Among the mineral treasures, besides gold and diamonds already mentioned, iron of superior quality is abundant; and salt, also, is extensively produced in saline marshes by the alternate processes, according to the season, of inundation and evaporation. The productions of the soil, which are, of course, equally various and rich, will be more satisfactorily considered under the heads of the respective localities. Suffice it to say, that the cotton is naturally excellent, and that the tea-plant of China has been introduced, though hitherto with indifferent success. The exports are necessarily different from the different sections of the country. From the n., they are coffee, cotton, cocoa, sugar, and tobacco; from the s., hides, tallow, horns, etc.; and from the middle, drugs, diamonds, gold-dust, dyes, rice, manioc, tapioca, spirits, and rosewood. Their total value in five years, 1873-77, averaged £17,500,000; the corresponding imports averaging £17,000,000. The chief centers of foreign trade, and, along with San Paulo in the interior, the principal cities of the empire, are Para, Maranhão, Bahia, Pernambuco, and Rio de Janeiro. This last-named port, which is likewise the seat of government, is the favorite halting-place of the outward-bound vessels for India, China, and Australia.

BRAZIL (ante) comprises 3,288,000 sq.m.; and the several islands adjoining in the Atlantic, the most important of which is Fernando Noronha, 250 m. e. from cape St. Roque, and the penal settlement of the empire. The boundaries of B. are sufficiently described, ante. The most striking physical feature of the country is the Amazon river, which with its numerous tributaries affords 30,000 m. of navigation within the territory of the empire. (See AMAZON.) Next in importance is the Tocantins river, which rises in the s. central part of the country, and flows directly n. for 900 m., uniting with the Para branch of the Amazon. The river Araguaya, parallel with and w. of the Tocantins, divides about midway in its course, and afterwards unites, inclosing between its two channels the remarkable Bananal island, 220 m. in circumference, and containing a lake 80 m. in extent. The Turyassu, Maranhao, and Paranahyba are the largest of the other rivers of the n.e. slope. The San Francisco occupies a wide inclosed basin of the eastern highland, and has a course n. and e. of 1800 m., navigable 160 m. from the ocean.

Further s. on the coast slope are the Paraguasu, the Rio de Contas, the Belmenti, the Rio Doce, and the Paranahyba do Sul, all of them to some extent navigable. The great rivers of the southern watershed are the Parana and the Paraguay (q.v.). The Parana rises in a broad basin which extends for 700 m. in width across s. Brazil. The Paraguay has its source in several small lakes between 13° and 14° s., taking in as it flows southward a number of large and small streams, and affording uninterrupted navigation through nearly its whole course, large steamers running up about 1000 m. in a direct line from Buenos Ayres, and smaller craft going 300 m. further. The other large rivers, such as the Xingu, Tapajos, Madeira, Purus, Jurua, Javari, Zapura, Negro, Jamuda, etc., are tributaries of the Amazon.

In respect to elevation, the surface of the country is divided into the higher regions of plateaus, ridges, and broad open valleys, occupying the whole of the country s. of the latitude of cape St. Roque, and the vast lowland plain of the Amazon, extending across the continent to the base of the Andes of Peru, Ecuador, and Colombia, rising in the extreme n. to the ranges which form the boundary of Venezuela and Guiana. The highest and most important mountains in B. are the Serra da Mantiqueira and the Serra do Espinhaço, between 18° and 23° s., and from 100 to 200 m. from the sea-coast. The highest peak has been estimated from 8900 to 10,300 feet. There is a coast range of mountains beginning n. of Rio Janerio, and running both n. and s. not far from the ocean; but none of the peaks exceed 7500 feet. The remarkably even character of the great level of the river provinces may be known from the fact that where the Amazon enters B. at Tabatinga, more than 1500 m. in a direct line from the ocean, the river banks are not more than 250 ft. above sea-level. The rock formation of the mountains is chiefly gneiss. Clay-slates are found between the Parana and the Paraguay, and true carboniferous strata occur in the coal basins s. of the tropic. Carboniferous rocks occur, but Jurassic rocks do not appear. Coral reefs occur along the n. coast. The limestones of the upper San Francisco basin contain the celebrated bone caverns which have been described by Lund, the Danish naturalist. In some of these the remains of extinct animals of high antiquity have been found, such as those of the mastodon, mylodon, gıyptodon, toxodon, and megatherium; and with these, stone implements and remains of man so buried with the bones of the extinct fauna as to lead to the conclusion that man was contemporaneous with them. There are no signs of recent volcanic action in B., but warm springs are found in several places, saline and alkaline, varying from 88° to 119°, the warmest at an elevation of 6000 ft. above the sea.

In minerals and jewels B. is very rich. Diamonds were found, in 1786, 300 m. n. of Rio, and at later periods in many other sections. The emerald, ruby, sapphire, topaz, beryl, tourmaline (black, blue, and green), amethyst, garnet, rock crystal, chalcedony, opal, agate, and carnelian are more or less plentiful. There are several large coal basins, and also sulphur, saltpeter, and salt. Gold is abundant in many of the provinces, always accompanied by silver. Silver alone was found in large quantities more than 200 years ago. There are rich mines of mercury not far from the capital; and copper, lead, iron, and manganese are also abundant.

The climate of this immense country is naturally widely varied. In the northern lowlands, between the tropics, it is very hot, with but two seasons in the year-the dry and the wet. In the higher lands it is milder, and in the extreme s. the four seasons are tolerably well marked. The wet season lasts from Dec. or Jan, until May or June, with occasional intervals of fine weather. The other half of the year is dry, but not without occasional showers. The amount of water in the wet season is enormous, often producing a rise of 40 ft. in the great rivers, and heavy rains are accompanied with abundant lightning and thunder. At Maranhao the annual rain-fall has been as high as 280 in., while at Rio Janeiro it is but 59 or 60 inches. Temperature is remarkably even, particularly in the Amazon basin. A record kept at Para between 1861 and 1867 showed the annual mean of 80° with extremes of 68 and 95. The greatest ranges are in the central and southern tablelands and mountain ridges, where the coast temperature is hot and the air humid, while in the interior there may be snow and a little ice. The prevailing winds are the trades from the e., sweeping in the moisture of the Atlantic, and reaching inland along the whole valley of the Amazon to the Andes. These winds greatly mitigate the heat of the dry season. In the interior the course of winds is n. or s., blowing usually toward the sun. Along the ocean the usual interchanging land and sea breezes are of regular daily occurrence. Malarial fevers prevail in some of the low and marshy districts, but, as a whole, B is a healthy country. There have been epidemics of cholera and yellow-fever; but the ordinary mortality of cities and towns compares favorably with that of European cities.

Vegetation in B. is wonderfully prolific. Except on the loftiest mountains and in some stony districts, the country is luxuriant with vegetable life. In the mountain passes, near the sea-shore, the joint effect of heat and moisture produces a growth beyond man's efforts to restrain. Trees cut and split for fences send forth shoots and branches immediately, and this whether the position of the fragments be that in which they originally grew, or inverted. Along the Amazon the loftiest trees destroy each other in consequence of near proximity. In the province of Maranhao roots of grasses and other plants extending from the shores of pools weave themselves into vegetable bridges, along which the wanderer treads, unaware that he has left solid land until he

sees the jaws of a cayman protruding through the herbage beneath him. Along the coast mangroves are numerous and prominent, and so rank is their growth that the seeds begin to sprout before they drop from the parent stem, while the drooping branches strike into the soil and take root. Behind the mangroves come the palms in great variety, while the underwood is chiefly crotons. Brushwood and herbage are seldom seen; everything tends to the gigantic in size. The most varied forms group awkwardly together, crossed and intertwined with leaves. The preponderance of trees with feathery foliage, and glossy, fleshy leaves, lends alternately a tender and luxuriant character to the scene, which in every other respect is painful from its monotony. Cocoa trees, the vanilla, the cinnamon tree, various kinds of pepper, and Brazilian cassia are found. Above the falls of the large rivers the vegetation is generally different; and so is that of the southern pampas or prairies. There are found beautiful flowers, and at intervals groves of small trees growing far apart, while solitary myrtles, fruit trees, and occasionally a cactus add variety to the prospect. The cactus is prolific on the hot steeps of Pernambuco, and the medicinal ipecacuanha flourishes in Terro do Mar. In the valley of the Paraguay there is a profusion of water plants, in one river so many and so strong as seriously to obstruct navigation. The cocoa tree is in abundance near the sea-shore; Brazil-wood, noted for its dyes and its value as timber, also grows near the sea. Besides these there are the rosewood tree, the trumpet tree, the soap tree, the laurel-pear tree, and abundance of palms. The carnauba palm is one of the most useful trees; every part is valuable, even the wax yielded by its leaves being an article of commerce. More important still is the caoutchouc, or india rubber tree, the gum of which exported from B. annually amounts to more than $5,000,000. The banana tree furnishes the food of a great portion of the population. Other important fruits are the mango, pine-apple, custard-apple, guava, melons, and nuts.

Although not more than one acre in 200 in all B. is under cultivation, it ranks high as an agricultural country for some articles. The chief productions are coffee, sugar, cotton, manico or cassava flour, tobacco, rice, maize, fruits, and spices. Wheat and flour are imported from the United States.

The varieties of animal life in B. are probably more numerous than in any other part of the globe. Of beasts of prey the jaguar, or South American tiger, is the most formid-. able; besides this animal there are the tiger cat, the puma, the ocelot, the red wolf, and the Brazil fox or wild dog. Large herds of peccary roam in the forests, where also are tapirs, largest of South American animals. The water hog, abundant on the river banks, is the largest rodent. Various species of deer inhabit the plains. Of edentata there are several species of armadillos, the ant-eater, and the sloth; and of marsupialia there are many kinds of the opossum family all over the country. Of monkeys the variety is surprising; the largest belong to the genus stentor, and are known as howling monkeys. The simia jacchus is found in no other region. There are many species of bats; while of birds the variety is wonderful, from the ouira, an eagle far larger and more powerful than the most important of European birds of prey, to humming-birds not larger than humble-bees. Among larger birds is the rhea, a species of ostrich. Most birds of B. are noted for beauty of plumage. Red, blue, and green parrots haunt the tree-tops; pigeons in great varieties throng the woods; orioles resort to the orange groves; chattering manakins mislead the sportsman; and the metallic tones of the uraponga resound through the forests like the strokes of a hammer on an anvil. The toucan is prized for its feathers, which are of lemon and bright red color, with transverse stripes reaching to the extremities of the wings. One beautiful specimen of the humming-bird has the native name of the "enanthe engera," or "winged flower." Serpents are found in great varieties, the most venomous being the rattlesnake and the jararaca. Others, such as the boa, attain enormous size. There are also many varieties of annoying insects along the rivers; one of them, the puim, so small as to be nearly invisible, inflicting a painful and sometimes dangerous bite. The red ant is a destroyer of vegetation, and large districts are sometimes laid waste by its ravages. Spiders attain enormous size, but few of them are venomous. Butterflies are innumerable, and of the most surprising beauty. A dozen varieties of wild bees, most of them honey-makers, have been noted. Caymans and lizards abound. The supply of turtle in the Amazon and its tributaries appears inexhaustible. sea and the streams abound in fish, among which naturalists have within the past few years found many hundreds of kinds before unknown. One of the largest, the pira rucu, is the principal food of large numbers of people along the Para and the Amazon. The more important domestic animals are the horse, ox, and sheep. Immense numbers of wild horses roam the great southern prairies, found generally in droves of 20 or 30. Cattle also roam wild, and are killed in great numbers for their hides, horns, and tallow, which form a large proportion of the exports of the country.

The

In

The population of B. presents a number of distinct types, as well as many varieties blended therefrom. In the eastern or maritime provinces the aboriginal Indians have, to a great extent, become amalgamated with the settled population; but in the great forests and plains of the interior, they are nearly all in a savage condition. general description the Indians are copper-colored, of medium height, thick-set, broadchested, and muscular, with small hands and feet, and well-shaped limbs; hair black, thick, and straight; features broad, cheek-bones not generally prominent; eyes black,

and sometimes oblique like those of the Chinese; in disposition apathetic and undemonstrative. Though considerably differing in different sections they appear to belong to one original stock, called the Tupi-Guavani. The only tribe that has almost entirely resisted the inroads of civilization is that of the Botocudos (q. v.), living in the forests of the Rio Doce, who are sunk in the lowest barbarism, and are fast dying out. From the mixture of the natives with Europeans, mainly with the Portuguese, are descended the Mamlucos, who first became prominent in raids and conquests in the southern provinces. Negroes, originally from Africa, form a large proportion of the population; and from these and whites have sprung mulattoes of all shades. The B. creoles, who call themselves Brazilerios, descendants of these mixed races, are little inferior in capacity, physical strength, or intelligence to the true Portuguese. A great social reform was begun by the law enacted in Sept., 1871, providing that after the date of the act all children born of slave parents should be free, and that all slaves belonging to the state or the emperor's household should likewise be free; and the same law set apart an emancipation fund to be applied to the ransom of slaves owned by private persons. Since that time emancipation has gone on rapidly, the work having been greatly assisted by private philanthropy, and by many of the slaveholders themselves. The importation of slaves was forbidden in 1853, and since then more than a million persons have obtained their freedom. The rapid progress of emancipation after 1871 caused some difficulty in the supply of labor; but the ultimate effect has been to give new avenues for the employment of capital, promote internal improvements, and induce desirable emigration from Europe. Enterprises of all kinds have multiplied, and public instruction has received a vigorous impulse. Until after 1872, when a full census was begun, every estimate of the population of B. had been based upon the official returns of 1817 and 18. In the first census the total was put at 4,396,000; in 1850, a round number, 7,000,000; and in 1860, 8,000,000. In the following table for 1872 the figures for the provinces marked * are estimated on the best available knowledge; those not marked are the census figures:

The constitution of B., dating from Mar. 25, 1824, establishes four powers in the state the legislative, the executive, the judicial, and the moderating power, or royal prerogative. Senators are chosen for life at electoral meetings specially convened, each of which nominates three candidates, leaving the choice of them to the sovereign or his ministers. A senator must be of native birth, 40 years old, and must have an annual income of $800; there are 58 of them, and their salaries are $1800 per annum. Members of the house, or congress, are elected for four years. The empire is divided into electoral districts, in which every 30 voters select one elector, and the electors, varying in number according to population, nominate a deputy from each district. The house is composed of 122 members. A voter must have an income of (about) $112; an elector of $225, and a deputy of $450 per year. All registered voters must vote, or suffer a penalty. Minors, monks, and servants may not vote; and naturalized foreigners, and persons not of the state religion (Roman Catholic), are ineligible as deputies. The deputies have a salary of $1200 per annum, besides traveling expenses. Sessions are limited to four months. Each house chooses its own officers, and at the opening and closing of a session both houses sit in a general assembly for the disposal of important business. For ordinary purposes, they sit separately. Taxation, provision for the army and navy, and, if it should become necessary, the choice of a sovereign, originate in the house of

* There are probably 1,000,000 Indians not taken into account.

Brazing.

deputies. The senate deals with offenses committed by members of the imperial family and by senators and deputies if committed during the session, and is invested with the right of convoking the legislative assembly should the emperor fail to do so for two months after the period fixed by law. The executive power is in the sovereign, assisted by the ministers and a council of state. The ministers are responsible for treason, corruption, abuse of power, and all acts contrary to the constitution, or the liberty, security, and property of citizens; a responsibility from which they cannot escape on the plea of orders from the sovereign. The executive functions consist in the convoca tion of the ordinary meetings of the legislative assembly; the nomination of bishops, governors of provinces, and magistrates; the declaration of peace or war, and the gene ral execution and superintendence of all measures voted by the legislature. The moder ating power, vested in the sovereign, gives him authority not only to select ministers and senators, but to temporarily withhold his sanction from legislative measures, to convoke extraordinary sessions of the legislative assemblies, to dissolve the chamber of deputies, and to grant amnesty and pardon. There are 7 ministries-war, foreign, interior, marine, finance, justice and public works, agriculture and commerce. The ministers are assisted by a council of state consisting of 12 ordinary and 12 extraordinary members, all named by the emperor, and holding office continuously. They are usually ex-ministers. The heir to the throne, if of age, is by right a councilor of state. the head of each province is a president appointed by the general government; and each province has its local legislature, or provincial chamber, called the legislative assembly of the province. The members of the latter are nominated by the electors who choose deputies to the national assembly, but the members of the provincial chambers are chosen directly by the electors for two years. The power of these provin cial bodies over local affairs is analogous to that of the general assembly over affairs of the empire.

At

The Roman Catholic is the established religion, but all others are tolerated "with the domestic or private forms of worship in buildings destined for the purpose, but without the exterior forms of temples." No one can be persecuted for religious acts or motives. The Roman Catholic clergy are maintained by the state; but funds are also voted for the assistance of other sects. No ecclesiastical decree can have force without permission of the emperor or of the general assembly. Marriages of Protestants celebrated in foreign countries are respected. The empire constitutes an ecclesiastical province of the Roman see, with an archbishop, 11 bishops, 12 vicars general, and about 1300 curates. Public education is in three distinct divisions-primary, secondary, and scientific. The first is gratuitous, and "will become compulsory as soon as the govern ment considers it opportune." Thus far it is very backward.

The trade and commerce of B. have rapidly increased within the past decade. In 1877, there were 1438 m. of railroad open for traffic, and 800 m. in course of construction. Telegraphs, though comparatively new, reported 3890 miles. There were at the close of 1876, 1018 post-offices, and 13,165,000 letters for the year. Weights and measures are those of the French metric system. The standard of value is the gold octava of 22 carats, equal to 4 milreis, or 4000 reis; value at the U. S. mint, $2.18.

BRAZIL', a city in Clay co., Ind., on the St. Louis, Vandalia, Terre Haute, and Indianapolis railroad, 57 m. w.s. w. of Indianapolis; pop 70, 2186; in '80, 3530. There are coal and iron mines near the place, and the people are largely engaged in mining and manufacturing. There are six churches, two banks, four weekly newspapers, and a number of good schools.

BRAZIL, ISLAND OF, one of the mythical islands of the Atlantic set down by early cosmographers. The Arabic geography of Edrisi (middle of the 12th c.) describes several such islands, and in Mercator's atlas, 400 years later, the northern Atlantic (now known to be nearly clear of islands) is as full of islands as the sky is of stars. Among these mythical places were the isle of St. Brandon, said to have been discovered by the Irish in the 6th c., of which many wonders were told; the island of Anlilia; the island of the Seven Cities, said to have been the place of refuge of Christians flying from the Saracen conquerors of Spain; the island of Mayda, or Asmaide; and the isle Verde, behind which the inhabitants of the Hebrides imagine they see the sun disappear at setting. None, however, were more famous than the isle of Brazil, the name of which connects it with the red dye-wood of the same appellation. The island was assigned to several places, in one map being attached to the Azores, and finally getting the name of Terceira. The baseless tradition was not finally and officially exploded until the publication of the British admiralty charts of 1865.

BRAZIL CABBAGE, or CHOU CARAÏBE, (caladium sagittifolium, or xanthosoma sagittifolia), a plant of the natural order aracea, nearly allied to cocco (q.v.), and very similar to it, although it differs in having arrow-shaped pointed leaves. It is supposed to be originally a native of tropical America, but is now in common cultivation throughout the whole tropics; not only the root being used for food like that of cocco, but also the leaves, boiled as greens. Both root and leaves are almost entirely destitute of the acridity so generally characteristic of the order.

BRAZILIAN GRASS, an incorrect popular name applied to a substance used in the manufacture of a very cheap kind of hats, knows as B. G. hats, and also as chip hats