and from its surrounding ramparts commands fine views o. Le Apennines. Although the social life of Modena is somewhat stagnant, it is, nevertheless, a most agreeable city. It lies on the famous Via Emilia (see EMILIAN PROVINCES), by which it is divided into the old and new city, and is connected by a navigable canal with the rivers Secchia and Panaro. Among the public buildings may be noted the cathedral of St. Geminianus, the patron of the city, a structure of the purely Lombard style. The campanile or belfry is one of the great towers of Italy; it is a square turreted structure, 315 ft. in height, its entire façade being in white marble. The ducal palace, a picturesque structure of the 17th c., is adorned with an infinity of galleries, courts, and marble arches; it contains the splendid Biblioteca Estense, numbering 100.000 volumes, and 3,000 rare MSS., also the valuable Este archives, a most important collection of medieval records, collections of coins and medals of great antiquity, and an observatory. Schools of theology, law medicine, and mathematics have replaced the university suppressed in 1821; there are also fine museums of natural history, a botanic garden, theaters, and good public baths. The trade of Modena is unimportant: the manufactured products are confined to linen and woolen fabrics, leather, hats, paper, glass, and pottery, besides silk manufactured to a much less extent than formerly. Modena is the birthplace of the great anatomist Fallopius, and the antiquary Sigonio.

The ancient history of Modena affords evidence that it enjoyed at an early period a considerable degree of prosperity; the splendor, wealth, and arts of the city of Modena being mentioned by Cicero, Pliny, and Strabo. In modern times Modena has shared more or less the various vicissitudes which befell Italy, and participated in the great internecine feuds of the country. In 960 a member of the great house of Este was proclaimed marquis of Modena, and in 1452 the then reigning marquis was created duke by the emperor Frederick III. In 1796 Modena formed part of the Cisalpine Republic, but was restored in 1814 by the congress of Vienna to the reigning family. The duchy had at that time an area of 2.310 sq.m., and a pop. of 586,000. In 1848 the duke of Modena was temporarily deprived of his rights; and in 1860 the population definitively expelled their unpopular ruler, who carried off all the property and valuables within his reach, Modena is now a province of the kingdom of Italy. See illus., ITALIAN ARCHITECTURE, vol. VIII., p. 190, fig. 6.

MOD ERATOR, a term used in Scotch ecclesiastical law to describe the chairman or president of a Presbyterian church-court.

MODICA, the Mohac of the Saracens, a city of the island of Sicily, in the province of Val di Nota, 30 m. from Syracuse. Pop. '81, 37,919. The city, which stands perched amid rocks, contains several fine buildings, and, notwithstanding the humidity of the climate, the sanitary condition of the inhabitants seems satisfactory. The soil of the surrounding district is the most productive of Sicily, and yields vast quantities of corn, tobacco, oil, wine, hemp, which, with cheese, wool, soda, and butter, form the chief export trade of the place. The valley of Ipsica, or Ispica, in the vicinity of Modica, Contains remarkable rocks, in which numerous dwellings are excavated.

MODIL LION, an ornamental bracket much used in classic architecture, especially in the cornices of the Corinthian and Composite styles.

MODJESKA, HELENA. See page 882.

MODOC: co., Cal. See page 882.

MODOCS, the name of a tribe of American Indians, meaning "enemies," and applied to them by a hostile tribe. The Modocs formerly belonged to the Klamaths (q.v.), but became estranged from them and eventually antagonistic. They are supposed to have originated on the shores of lake Klamath in California. They were dull and lethargic by nature, unimpressible, with little expression to their features, and little energy or activity in their movements and habits. They had the custom of making slaves of their prisoners of war, and of buying and selling these, after the fashion of the ancient Romans and Carthaginians. They had a religion, in which a mythical deity whom they called Komoose, stood in the place of a god. In 1847 and 1849 they are said to have conducted predatory excursions against the whites. A year later capt. Nathaniel Lyon fought a band of these Indians on Clear lake, Modoc co.. Cal., and defeated them, inflicting severe and merited chastisement. But by 1852 the Modocs appear to have forgotten this infliction, or remembered it with an unwise disposition for vengeance, for they again indulged in a massacre of white settlers, and invited fresh retribution. This was effected in a manner not according to the laws of civilized warfare, however, for the Modocs were invited by the whites to attend a pow-wow and feast, presumably of a peaceful character, and, of the 46 who accepted the invitation. 41 were ruthlessly murdered. After this act warfare continued for many years. In 1856 a campaign against them was carried out by gen. Crosby, and a large number were slaughtered. This did not put an end to the war, however, which continued until 1864, when they acceded to the stipulations of a treaty, ratified and proclaimed early in 1870. By this treaty they agreed to give up their lands to the U. S. government, and to go upon a reservation to be set apart for them. They did, in fact, go upon two different reservations, but these were already occupied by their enemies, the Klamaths, a fact which kept them continually in trouble. Two chiefs had now begun to obtain considerable notoriety, not alone on the frontier, but among the settled states. These were capt. Jack, who was the leader of a band of Modocs that was making itself particularly obnoxious to the whites; and Schonchin, hereditary chief of the tribe, whose followers were less objectionable. In 1868 capt.

Mogadore.

Jack, with his party, moved to Lost river, where they remained until 1872, when orders were given by the superintendent of Indian affairs to return them to the reservation. Troops from fort Klamath were sent against their camps, and after some fighting they were dislodged, and retreated to a district known as the "lava beds," near fort Klamath, Oregon, where they were enabled to strongly intrench themselves, owing to the peculiar natural formation of the country. On Jan. 17, 1873, the troops under gen. Wheaton entered the lava beds and attempted to drive out the Modocs, but with such ill success that they were even unable to approach nearer to them than a distance of 2 or 3 miles. The troops lost 11 killed and 21 wounded, and were forced to retire. A second attempt was made under the command of gen. Gillem, but this also resulted in failure. Commissioners were now appointed by the government to confer with capt. Jack, and endeavor to bring about a peaceful settlement of the existing troubles. A meeting was arranged for April 11, 1873, which took place according to appointment, but was treacherously concluded by the Modocs, who fired upon the commissioners, with the result of killing outright gen. Canby and Dr. Thomas, and wounding Mr. Meacham, also a commissioner. This act broke up the conference, and a fierce fight ensued, the Modocs resisting desperately until starved out and forced to surrender, an event which did not occur until nearly two months later. The troops during this part of the siege were commanded by gen. Jeff. C. Davis, to whom belongs the honor of having at length forced the stubborn savages to acknowledge their defeat. A military commission was now appointed to try the chief offenders, and capt. Jack, Schonchin, jr., and two other Modocs were condemned to die. They were accordingly executed at fort Klamath, Oct. 3, 1873. The remainder of the band were retired to a reservation in the Indian territory.

MODULATION, in music. When in the course of a melody the key-note is changed, and the original scale altered by the introduction of a new sharp or flat, such change is called modulation. Much of the pleasure of music is derived from a judicious use of modulation. The art of good modulation from one key to another consists in the proper choice of intermediate chords. Sudden transitions, without intermediate chords, should be employed but sparingly, and in peculiar circumstances. Every piece of music is composed in a particular key, in which it begins and ends, which generally predominates over any other keys that may be introduced in the course of the composition.

MODULE, in classic architecture, an arbitrary measure for determining the proportions of the various members of the orders. The diameter, semi-diameter, or one-third of the diameter are most frequently used; the first being usually divided into 60 parts (or minutes), the second into 30 parts, and the third into 20 parts.

MOD'ULUS, a constant coefficient or multiplier, by means of which one series or system of quantities can be reduced to another similar series or system. Thus we have the modulus of elasticity (q.v.), of friction (q.v.), and of systems of logarithms (q. v.). The system of logarithms which is universally accepted as the primary is Napier's, and from it all other systems are deduced in the following manner: Let N be a number of which the Napierian logarithm is b, e being the Napierian base, it is required to find the logarithm of N to some other base a. Let a be this logarithm, then (see LOGARITHMS) N=&b=αs, and, taking the Napierian logarithms of both sides of this equation, b log. =x log. a, or b log. N 1 (since log. e=1) b=x log. a, therefore x=-- i.e., log. N= Xlog..N. log. a' log. a. log.a' is independent of N, and is therefore constant for

1

This multiplier, or "modulus,'

log. a'

=

the reduction of all Napierian logarithms to the system whose base is a, If a 10, the

multiplier becomes.

1

log. 10'

log.

and is equal to

2.30258509

the modulus of Briggs's, or the common system of logarithms, = .4342944....

MO DUS, in English law, means a peculiar custom by which lands become exempted from payment of tithes on paying some composition or equivalent.

MÖ'EN, a Danish island in the Baltic sea, separated from Seeland on the n. w. by the Ufsund, and from Falster on the s. w. by the Grönsund. It is 19 m. long, by about 5 m. in average breadth. Area, 84 sq. miles. Pop. about 15,000, who are supported by agriculture, fisheries, and commerce. It has been called the Switzerland of Denmark, and is remarkable for the irregularity of its surface. The soil is fruitful. Its chief town and seaport, Stege, has a pop. '80, 1930.

ME'RIS, LAKE, the ancient name of a sheet of water in Egypt, now known as Birketel-Kerún, or El-Korn (the lake of the promontory"), is situated in the province of Fayûm, about 50. m. s. w. of Cairo; extreme length from n.e. to s. w., 30 m.; breadth, 6 m. it was formerly much larger. Its average depth is 12, and its greatest ascertained depth 28, feet. On the n. and w., its shores are rocky, but on the s., flat and sandy. It is connected with the Nile by a canal called Bahr-Jusuf ("the river of Joseph"). The waters are brackish, on account of their being impregnated with the alkaline salts of the desert, and with the muriate-of-lime depositions of the surrounding hills. In the time of the Pharaohs, the revenue derived from the fisheries was applied to the maintenance

of the queen's wardrobe and perfumes. Under the Persians, they were let (during the season of the inundations, when the canal fed the lake) at £150 a day. At present, however, they only yield about £84 a year.

ME'SIA, an ancient Roman province, bounded by the Danube on the n., the Black sea on the e., the mountain-chains of Hamus (Balkan) and Orbelus on the s., that of Scardus and the rivers Drinus (Drina) and Savus (Save) on the west. The river Ciabrus (Cibriz) divided it into two parts, of which the eastern (Masia inferior) is the present Bulgaria, and the western (Masia superior) is Servia. Its original inhabitants were mostly of Thracian race. Gaulish or Celtic invaders settled in western Mosia about 277 B.C., under the name of Scordisci. The Romans first came in contact with the tribes of } Masia after the conquest of Macedonia, when C. Scribonius Curio forced his way as far n. as the Danube, and gained a victory over the Mosians (75 B.C.), but the country was not completely subjugated till 29 B.C. It was made a Roman province in the reign of Augustus, and flourished for more than two centuries, but as a frontier province it was much exposed to hostile invasions, and required a line of fortresses and stations all along the s. bank of the Danube. In 250 A.D. the Goths made an irruption into the country, and defeated and slew the Roman emperor, Decius. In the following year, and about the end of the 4th c., it was given up to them by the emperor Theodosius I. Slavonian tribes settled in Moesia in the 6th and 7th centuries.

MESO GOTHIC GOSPELS. See ULFILAS.

MESO-GOTHS, the name given to the Goths who in the 3d c. settled in lower Mosia at the mouth of the Danube. Ulfilas (q.v.) was a Moso-Goth. The name, however, became of more general use to designate those who remained in Mœsia after the great migration in the beginning of the 5th century.

MOFFAT, a market t. and favorite watering-place of Scotland, in the co. of Dumfries, stands in the upper part of the broad and beautiful valley of the Annan, and is surrounded by hills of moderate elevation. It was connected (1883) by a railway with the Caledonian railway, and is 19 m. n. n.e. of Dumfries. Among other public edifices are the baths and the reading and assembly rooms. The mineral springs, the principal of which, like that of Harrogate, is saline and sulphurous, are highly celebrated; but perhaps the. greatest attractions of the place are its salubrious air and exquisite environs. During the season the town is increased in population by from 800 to 1000 visitors, to suit whose convenience great numbers of elegant villas, commanding fine views of the neighboring country, have been erected. Pop. '81, 2,161.-The Moffat hills extend between the counties of Lanark and Peebles in the n., and Dumfries in the s.; highest summit Hartfell, 2,650 feet. See Black's Guide to Moffat.

MOFFAT, ROBERT, a distinguished missionary, b. at Ormiston, East Lothian, Dec. 21, 1795. Having resolved to become a missionary to the heathen, he offered his services to the London missionary society, was accepted, and sent by them to South Africa. Arriving at Cape Town in 1817, he immediately proceeded beyond the boundaries of Cape Colony to Namaqualand, where he entered upon his labors at the kraal of Africaner, a chief whose name had long been a terror to the people of the neighboring districts of the colony, on account of the audacious raids which he made among their settlements, and his ferocious character, but who had lately become a convert to Christianity, and now showed a warm desire for its promotion. Here Moffat labored for three or four years with great success, Christianity and civilization advancing together. But the situation, on account of the drought and sterility of the country, and its very thinly scattered population, being unsuitable for a principal mission-station, he set out in search of a better locality, and labored at several stations in succession in the countries to the n. and n.e. of Cape Colony. Wherever he went, the gospel was gladly received by some of those who heard it, and in some places by many. In every place he also guided the people in the arts of civilized life. He made several missionary tours, and his adventures were very remarkable, and are graphically described in his work, Missionary Labors and Scenes in Southern Africa (Lond. 1842), which he wrote and published during a visit of several years to Britain, rendered necessary by the state of his health. In 1842 Moffat returned to his labors in that country, and came back to England in 1870. His daughter was the wife of the celebrated Dr. Livingstone. In 1873 he was presented with the sum of £5,800 in recognition of his great services. He lectured on African missions in the nave of Westminster abbey in 1875. He d. 1883.

It

MOGADOʻRE, or SUE'RRA, a fortified t., and the principal seaport of Morocco, 130 m. w.s.w. of the city of that name, on the Atlantic ocean. Pop. about 20,000. It is the port of the capital, and was founded in 1760, on the site of an old Portuguese fort stands on a rocky promontory, opposite an island of the same name, long a haunt of pirates, which forms the harbor, and is said to be the best built town of the kingdom. Its streets are regular, though narrow, and it consists of two parts, each surrounded by water. The quarter called the Fortress contains the custom-house and the treasury, and is the residence of the pasha, the vice-consuls, and the Christian merchants. The town is defended by four batteries on the island, and by a fort on the land-side; the walls are also defensible. Mogadore is the seat of considerable trade; it exports olive-oil, wool, gum, hides, feathers, gold-dust, and almonds. In 1873, 114 vessels, of 28,907 tons,

entered, and 211, of 27,913 tons, cleared the port. The value of the cargo of those entering was £263,718; of those clearing, £259,930. The imports are woolens, cottons, hardware, etc.

MOGILA, or MOGILAS, PETER, 1597-1646; b. Moldavia; educated at the university of Paris. After serving in the Polish army he went into a monastery at Kiev, and became metropolitan of that town in 1629. He brought to Kiev from Paris the improved methods of study and the more advanced theological studies which were as yet unknown to Russia. He set up a printing press, and founded an academy and a library, to which he gave his own collection of books. With a view to strengthen the Greek church, he published A Confession of Faith, which contains an exposition of its doctrines, and which remains a standard treatise on the theology of his church. He also wrote a Catechism, a partial hagiography, and a number of dramas in verse.

MOGUER (Arab. "caves," of which there are many in the neighborhood), a t. of Spain, in the province of Huelva, 43 m. w.s.w. of Seville, rises gently above the Rio Tinto, near the mouth of which is its port, Palos. The streets are generally broad and straight, but both the town and castle are much dilapidated. The old Franciscan convent was ordered in 1846 to be preserved as a national memorial, but it is now fast going to ruin, and the wood of the cells stripped off. It was here, in 1484, that Columbus, craving charity, was received by the prior, Juan Perez de Marchena, by whose influence he was enabled to prosecute his discoveries, setting out from the port of Palos on Aug. 3, 1492. It was to this port also that he returned, Mar. 15, 1493, after having accom plished the great end of his expedition. Here likewise did Cortes land in May, 1528, after the conquest of Mexico and lodged in the same convent which gave shelter to Columbus. Palos is now a poor decayed fishing port. Moguer has some trade in wine and fruit. Pop. 6,600.

MOGUL', GREAT, the popular designation of the emperor of Delhi, as the impersonation of the powerful empire established in Hindustan by the Mongols (q.v.), who were called Moguls by the Persians. The first great Mogul was Baber, the great-grandson of Timûr, who founded the Mongol empire in Hindustan in 1526. In 1803 the great Mogul was deprived of his throne; in 1827, of even the appearance of authority, becoming a mere pensioner of the British; and in 1858, Mohammed Bahadûr, the last of the dynasty, was condemned, and transported for complicity in the Indian mutiny.

MOHACS', a market t. of Hungary, 110 m. s.s.w. of Pesth, on the western arm of the Danube. It contains a gymnasium, has an important cattle-market, is a station for steamboats on the Danube, and the seat of considerable trade in wine, coal, timber, and agricultural produce. Pop. '80, 12,385. It owes its historical importance to the great. battle fought here, Aug. 29, 1526, between Louis II. of Hungary, with 25,000 Hungarians, and the sultan Soliman at the head of about 200,000 Turks. The battle resulted in the disastrous defeat of the Hungarians, who lost their king, 7 bishops, many nobles and dignitaries, and upwards of 22,000 men. A second battle was fought here on Aug. 12, 1687, when the Turks in their turn were defeated by an Austro-Hungarian army under Charles of Lorraine.

MO'HAIR, the wool of the Angora goat (see GOAT and ANGORA), a native of Asia Minor. Few animals have so beautiful a covering as the fine, soft, silky, long, and always pure white wool of this goat. Each animal, at the annual clip in April or May, yields from 2 lbs. to 4 lbs. of wool. It is only within the last 30 years that mohair has been in great request in Britain, but its development as an article of trade has been simultaneous with that of alpaca. In 1880 the amount of mohair and other goats' hair imported was 13,566,020 lbs.; the value, £1,233,855. See WOOLEN MANUFACTURES.

MOHAM MED (Arab. the Praised*), the name taken, at a later period, by the founder of Islam. He was originally called Halabi. He was born about the year 570 A.D., at Mecca, and was the son of Abdallah, of the family of the Hashim; and of Amina, of the family of Zuhra, both of the powerful tribe of the Koreish, but of a side-branch only, and therefore of little or no influence. His father, a poor merchant, died either before or shortly after Mohammed's birth, whom his mother then (according to a doubtful tradition) is supposed to have handed over, after the fashion of her tribe, to a Bedouin woman, that she might nurse him in the salubrious air of the desert. In consequence of the repeated fits of the child, however, which were ascribed to demons, the nurse sent him back in his third year. When six years old he also lost his mother. His grandfather, Abd-Al-Mutallib, adopted the boy; and when, two years later, he, too, died, Mohammed's uncle, Abu Talib, though poor himself, took him into his house, and remained his best friend and protector throughout his whole life. The accounts which have survived of the time of his youth are of too legendary a nature to deserve credit; certain, however, it seems to be that he at first gained a scanty livelihood by tending the flocks of the Meccans, and that he once or twice accompanied his uncle on his jour neys to southern Arabia and Syria. In his 25th year he entered the service of a rich widow named Chadîdja, likewise descended from the Koreish, and accompanied her car

*Or, according to Deutsch, whose view is fully corroborated and adopted by Sprenger in his Leben und Lehre Mohammads, in allusion to Hag. ii. 7, the predicted Messiah.

avans-in an inferior capacity, perhaps as a camel-driver-to the fairs. Up to that time his circumstances were very poor. Suddenly his fortune changed. The wealthy, but much older, and twice widowed Chadidja offered him her hand, which he accepted. She bore him a son, Al-Kâsim-whence Mohammed adopted the name Abu Al-Kâsimand four daughters: Zainab, Rukaija, Umm Kulthûm, and Fâtima; and afterwards a second son, whom he called Abd Manâf, after an idol worshipped among his tribe. Both his sons, however, died early. Mohammed continued his merchant's trade at Mecca, but without much energy, spending most of his time in solitary contemplations. In his 35th year he is said to have, by chance only, been chosen arbiter in a quarrel about the replacing of the sacred black stone in the Kaaba (q.v.); but not before his 40th year is there anything really important to be told of his life.

Before, however, entering on the weighty events of the subsequent period, it is by no means unimportant to advert to such traits of Mohammed's outward appearance as are yet recoverable. He was of middle height, rather lean, but broad shouldered, and altogether of strong build; slightly-curled black hair flowed round his strongly developed head; his eyes, overhung with thick eyelashes, were large and coal-black; his nose, large and slightly bent, was well formed. A long beard added to the dignity of his appearance. A black mole between his shoulders became afterwards among the faithful "the seal of prophecy." In his walk he moved his whole body violently, as if descending a mountain." His gait and presence were altogether of an extremely imposing nature. In his 40th year Mohammed received his first revelation," or, in other words, became first aware that he had a "mission." About the year 600 A.D., Christianity had penetrated into the heart of Arabia, through Syria on the one, and Abyssinia on the other hand. Judaism no less played a prominent part in the peninsula, chiefly in its northern parts, which were dotted over with Jewish colonies, founded by emigrants after the destruction of Jerusalem; and round about Yathrib (Medina). Besides these two allimportant religious elements, several sects, remnants of the numerous ancient sects which had sprung up everywhere during the first Christian centuries: Sabians, Mandeans, etc., on the frontiers of Syria and Babylonia, heightened the religious ferment which, shortly before the time of Mohammed, had begun to move the minds of the thoughtful. At that time there arose, according to undoubted historical accounts, several men in the Hedjaz (Waraka, Obeid Allah, Othman, Zayd, etc.), who preached the futility of the ancient pagan creed, with its star-worship, its pilgrimages and festive ceremonies, its temples and fetiches. It had in reality long ceased to be a living faith, and only the great mass of the people clung to it as to a sacred inheritance from times immemorial. The unity of God, the "ancient religion of Abraham," was the doctrine promulgated by these forerunners of Mohammed, and many of those who, roused by their words, began to search for a form of religion which should embody both the traditions of their forefathers and a purer doctrine of the divinity, turned either to Judaism or to Christianity. The principal scene of these missionary labors was Mecca, then the center of the pilgrimages of most of the Arabian tribes, and where, from times immemorial, long anterior to the city itself, the Kaaba (q.v.), Mount Arafat, the valley of Mina, etc., were held sacred-the Koreish, Mohammed's tribe, having the supreme care over these sanctuaries ever since the 5th century. It was under these circumstances that Mohammed felt "moved" to teach a new faith, which should dispense with idolatry on the one, as with Judaism and Christianity on the other hand. He was 40 years of age, as we said, when he received the first "divine" communication in the solitude of the mountain Hirâ, near Mecca. Gabriel appeared to him, and in the name of God commanded him to “read” -that is, to preach the true religion, and to spread it abroad by committing it to writing (Sur. xcvi.). How far Mohammed was a "prophet," in the common sense of the word, has been the subject of endless and utterly futile discussions in the Christian world. That he was no vulgar impostor is now as generally recognized, as that other once popular doctrine, that he was in league with the devil, is rejected by thinking men. What part his epilepsy had in his "visions," we are not able to determine. Certain it is that, after long and painful solitary broodings, a something-not clearly known to himselfat times moved him with such fearfully rapturous vehemence that, during his revelations, he is said to have roared like a camel, and to have streamed with perspiration; his eyes turned red, and the foam stood before his mouth. The voices he heard were sometimes those of a bell, sometimes of a man, sometimes they came in his dreams, or they were laid in his heart. Waraka, one of his wife's relatives, who had embraced Judaism, spoke to him of the Jewish doctrine, and told him the story of the patriarchs and Israel; not so much as it is told in the Bible, but in the Midrash; and the gorgeous hues of the legendary poetry of the latter seem to have made as deep an impression on Mohammed's poetical mind as the doctrine of the unity of God and the morale-in its broad outlines of the Old Testament, together with those civil and religious laws, scriptural and oral, which are either contained as germs or fully developed in this record. Christianity exercised a minor influence upon him and his spiritual offspring. All his knowledge of the New Testament was confined to a few apocryphal books, and with all the deep reverence before Jesus, whom, together with Moses, he calls the greatest prophet, next to himself, his notions of the Christian religion and its founder were excessively vague. For some details on these points, however, we must refer to KORAN and MOHAMMEDAN

ISM.