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Mitchill.

lated into French. In 1851 he published Dream-Life, a Fable of the Seasons. In 1853 he was appointed U. S. consul at Venice, whence he returned in 1855, and has since lived on a farm at Edgewood, near New Haven. This farm he has made the subject of two of his books, My Farm of Edgewood, 1863, and Wet Days at Edgewood, 1864. His later publications are Seven Stories, 1865; Doctor Johns, a novel; Rural Studies, 1867; and About Old Story-Tellers, 1878. His style is modeled upon that of Washington Irving, and though exceedingly graceful, is sometimes felt to lack relief.

MITCHELL, ELISHA, D.D., 1793-1857; b. Conn.; graduated at Yale college in 1813; was tutor there 1816-18; professor of mathematics in the university of North Carolina in 1817-25, and afterwards of chemistry; was ordained a minister in the Presbyterian church in 1821. He was for some time state surveyor. In 1835 he ascended the Black mountains of North Carolina, and ascertained that they were the highest in the United States east of the Rocky mountains, estimating the principal peak, Clingman's peak, to be 6,476 ft. above the sea. In 1844 he again made the ascent, and made the height 6,672 ft. This being disputed, he made a third ascent in 1857 of one of the heights, and was killed by a fall from a precipice. He was buried on its summit. This is called in North Carolina Mt. Mitchell, or Mitchell's high peak.

MITCHELL, JOHN, b. England; a physician who settled at Urbana, Va., about 1700, and gained recognition as a botanist, and after whom the Mitchella repens was named by Linnæus. In 1755 he prepared a map of the British and French dominions in North America; and he also wrote, among other papers that attracted general attention, The Contest in America between Great Britain and France, and an essay on The Causes of the Different Colors of People in Different Climates. After his death in London in 1793, a manuscript written by him on the yellow fever in Virginia in 1742, came into the possession of Benjamin Franklin, and was found of much service by Dr. Rush of Philadelphia in his experiments in the epidemic of 1793.

MITCHELL, JOHN H. See page 882.

MITCHELL, JOHN I., b. Penn., 1837; was educated at the university at Lewisburg, in Union co., Penn.; and, graduating in 1858, read law and was admitted to the bar. At the outbreak of the rebellion, he enlisted in the 136th Pennsylvania volunteers, and was promoted to the rank of capt. After the close of the war, he settled at Wellsboro, Tioga co., Penn., and practiced law. In 1868 he was elected district-attorney of the county, and having served his term, was, in 1871, elected a member of the Pennsylvania house of representatives. He was chairman of the judiciary committee, served continuously until 1876, and became the recognized leader of the republican party in the house. In 1876 he was elected a member of congress, and was re-elected in 1878, but declined a renomination in 1880. In Feb., 1881, he was elected a member of the U. S. senate for Pennsylvania, after a bitter and protracted contest, in which a number of the most prominent men in the state were candidates.

MITCHELL, JOHN KEARSLEY, 1796-1858; b. Va.; educated at the university of Pennsylvania, and, after making three voyages to China as surgeon of a ship, began to practice medicine in Philadelphia. In 1824 he lectured on medicine and physiology at the Philadelphia institute, where he became professor of chemistry in 1826. He accepted the chair of the theory and practice of medicine at the Jefferson medical college in 1841. Besides many contributions to scientific periodicals he published: Saint Helena, a Poem by a Yankee, 1821; Indecision and other Poems, 1839; On the Cryptogamous Ori gin of Malarious and Epidemic Fevers, 1849; and a collection of his essays appeared in 1858.

MITCHELL, MARGARET JULIA (known as MAGGIE MITCHEL). See page 882. MITCHELL, MARIA, 1818-89; b. Mass., of Quaker parents. Her father, a schoolteacher in Nantucket, gave much attention to astronomy, in which his daughter at an early age became greatly interested. She devoted study especially to nebula and comets; and in 1847 she published an account of the discovery of a new telescopic comet, for which she received from the king of Denmark a gold medal. During the next ten years she was employed by the coast survey, and assisted in compiling the nautical almanac. In 1857 she traveled in Europe, visiting the principal observatories and astronomers; and in 1865 she became professor of astronomy in Vassar college. Miss Mitchell was a member of the American association for the advancement of science, and also of the American academy of arts and sciences, of which she was the first female member admitted. A short biography of her may be found in Woman's Record of Distinguished Women, by Mrs. Sarah J. Hale.

MITCHELL, NAHUM, 1769-1853; b. Mass.; a descendant of Experience Mitchell, one of the founders of the first New England settlement; graduated at Harvard, class of 1789; was a teacher in early youth, and having studied law was admitted to the bar in 1792, and commenced practice in his native town, East Bridgewater. In 1811 he was appointed justice of the circuit court of common pleas for the s. circuit, and in 1819 chief-justice, holding the office for two years. He was highly esteemed in the community, and by members of the profession in his native state and in Maine, and was placed in many responsible positions. In 1798, and for several consecutive sessions, he was elected representative to the general court; member of congress 1803-5, state senator 1813-14, and member of the executive council 1814-20. In 1839 he was again elected to the general court, this time from Boston, to which city he had removed. In 1827 he was

chairman of the railroad commission which surveyed the route of the Boston and Albany railroad. He was at one time librarian and treasurer of the Massachusetts historical society, and was for some years president of the Bible society of Plymouth county. Endowed with musical talent of a high order and a passion for the art, associated with Mr. Bartholomew Brown he published The Bridgewater Collection of Sacred Music, for many years the standard musical publication of New England, the sale reaching 100,000 copies. In 1840 he published History of the Early Settlement of Bridgewater, with genealogical tables, the first American publication of the kind.

MITCHELL, PETER, Hon., b. New Brunswick, 1824; educated in his native place of Newcastle, served his county two terms (5 years) in the provincial parliament, entering public life in 1856, and was appointed life-member of the legislative council. He became a member of the executive government of New Brunswick in 1858 in the discontented political condition of the British American provinces in relation to the relative political influence of Upper and Lower Canada, and in 1864 suffered defeat with his government, which favored by a large majority a federal union of the whole of British America from the Atlantic to the Pacific, including Prince Edward's Island and Newfoundland, which latter, however, refused to co-operate. He was appointed delegate to Canada and England on this subject and that of the Intercolonial railway from Halifax to Quebec. In 1865, associated with the hon. R. D. Wilmot, mayor of St. John's, he formed an administration in order to test the opinion of the province on the question of confederation, and was president of the executive committee. When the vote was taken, confederation was carried 33 to 8. He was minister of marine and fisheries in the cabinet of the Dominion government, 1867-73, and in 1882 was elected representative in the Dominion parliament for Northumberland co., N. B.

MITCHELL, S. WEIR, M.D., b. Philadelphia, 1829; educated at Jefferson medical college. He has since practiced in Philadelphia, making a specialty of nervous diseases. Among his writings are: Injuries of the Nerves; Nurse and Patient; Fat and Blood; a volume of magazine stories, a volume of poems, and In War Time, a novel.

MITCHELL, SAMUEL AUGUSTUS, 1792-1868; b. Conn.; a writer on geographical subjects; passed his childhood in Connecticut, and removed to Philadelphia, where he labored 40 years in cosmographical research. He prepared text-books of geography for the use of schools, maps and treatises considered superior to all others of their date. In 1846 he published General View of the World; in 1851, Universal Atlas, 76 sheets, forming a series of 130 maps, plans, and sections; in 1852, Pocket Maps, 53 in number;-in all 24 works, 400,000 copies of which have been sold in one year.

MITCHELL, Sir THOMAS LIVINGSTONE, D.C.L., 1792-1855; b. Scotland; son of John Mitchell. His family altered its name of Mitchell upon its intermarriage with the Livingstones. Thomas Mitchell began his service in the British army in the Portugal campaign of 1808, and at the close of the peninsular war had been promoted_maj. He was then sent to make surveys and plans of the peninsular battle-fields. In 1827 he published Outlines of a System of Surveying for Geographical and Military Purposes, and was made deputy surveyor-general of New South Wales. Besides the routine work of this office, he led a number of exploring expeditions into the interior of Australia. In 1831-32 he discovered the Pell river and the Nammoy. In 1835 he traced the course of the river Darling, which he followed, in 1836, as far as the Murray river, with which it unites. In the same expedition he followed the Glenelg river to the ocean. He gave the world the results of his explorations in his Three Expeditions into the Interior of Eastern Australia, etc., which appeared in 1838. He came to England to take charge of this work and of his Map of the Colony of New South Wales in their passage through the press, and on the occasion of this visit was knighted. He also received the degree of D.C.L. from Oxford, and was elected to the royal and the geographical societies. On his return to Australia he conducted a fourth exploring expedition, in which he reached 21° 30' south. He followed the Victoria river, which he was the first to find and name, but failed to advance as far as the gulf of Carpentaria, on account of losing his horses from a continued drought. In 1850 he published a school geography for use in New South Wales under the name of Australian Geography. His next publication was an account of a new steam propeller which he had invented on the principle of the boomerang. This work was published as the The Origin, History, and Description of the Boomerang Propeller. In 1854 he was made a col.

MITCHELL'S PEAK. See BLACK MOUNTAINS.

MITCHILL, SAMUEL LATHAM, LL.D., 1764-1831; b. Long Island, N. Y.; graduated doctor of medicine in 1786 in the university of Edinburgh; returned to America in 1787. and studied law for three years; was appointed in 1792 professor of chemistry, natural history, and philosophy in Columbia college. He had at this time a controversy with Dr. Priestley in reference to some of Lavoisier's principles. In 1796 he made a geological and mineralogical tour along the Hudson. In connection with Dr. Edward Miller and Elisha H. Smith he established the quarterly Medical Repository, of which he was for 16 years the editor. He was a member of the legislature in 1801; twice a representative in Congress, in 1801-4 and 1810-13; and in 1804 U. S. senator. In 1808 he became pro

fessor of natural history in the college of physicians and surgeons, and in 1820 of botany

and materia medica. He was vice-president of Rutgers medical school in 1826-30. He was somewhat eccentric. He proposed to have the name of this country changed to Fredonia, and in 1804 wrote An Address to the Fredes or People of the United States. He published the following works: Observations on the Absorbent Tubes of Animal Bodies; Nomenclature of the New Chemistry; Life, Exploits, and Precepts of Tammany, the famous Indian Chief; Synopsis of Chemical Nomenclature and Arrangement.

MITE, a name sometimes given to the acarides generally (see ACARUS); sometimes only to those of them which have the feet formed for walking, and the mouth not furnished with a sucker formed of lancet-like plates, as in the ticks (q.v.), but with mandibles. All of them are small creatures; the species are very numerous; they feed chiefly on decaying animal and vegetable substances, or are parasitical on quadrupeds, birds, and insects. The CHEESE MITE (acarus domesticus) is one of the best-known species; another is the FLOUR MITE (A. farina), too common among flour, in both of which the body is covered with hairs very large in proportion to its size, and capable of a considerable amount of motion. The SUGAR MITE (A. saccharinus) swarms in almost all soft sugar; but refined and crystallized sugar seems to defy its mandibles, and is free of it. The surface of jelly and preserves, when it has begun to become dry, is often covered with multitudes of very small mites. A species of mite is the cause of itch (q.v.); and many of the lower animals are infested by parasites of this tribe. Beetles may often be seen absolutely loaded by a species which preys on them; and bird-fanciers regard with the utmost horror the RED MITE, which lurks in crevices of cages and aviaries, and sucks the blood and eats the feathers of their inmates. See illus., CRUSTACEANs, vol. IV., p. 494.

MITER, the point or line of union of moldings meeting at an angle.

MITFORD, MARY RUSSELL, a well-known English authoress, was the only child of a physician, and was b. at Alresford, Hants, Dec. 16, 1786. At the age of ten she was sent to a boarding-school at Chelsea, and also placed under the guidance and tuition of a Miss Rowden, a lady of a literary turn, who had already educated lady Caroline Lamb, and was destined to be the instructress of Miss Landon and of Fanny Kemble. During the five years she spent here she read with avidity, studying the tragic authors of France. Shakespeare, and the early dramatists of England. At the age of 15 she returned home, and before she was 20 she published three volumes of poetry. These having been severely castigated by the Quarterly Review, she applied herself to writing tales and sketches for the magazines. The profession she had adopted from taste she was obliged to continue from necessity, for the spendthrift habits of her father, a good-natured but careless gentleman, had exhausted a competent fortune, and left him dependent on his daughter. The first volume of Our Village appeared in 1824, and the series of five volumes was completed in 1832. Of the more important of her dramatic works, Julian was first performed in 1823; the Foscari in 1826; and Rienzi in 1828-all of them, and especially the last, with success. Among her other important works are Recollections of a Literary Life (3 vols. 1852); Atherton and other Tales (a novel, 3 vols. 1854); and in 1854 she also published a collected edition of her dramatic works, in two volumes. In 1838 she received a pension from government, but neither this nor the growing ill-health of her later years induced her to relax her literary industry. She died at her residence, Swallowfield cottage, near Reading, Jan. 10, 1855.

Successful both as a compiler and an author, Miss Mitford has produced many interesting volumes; but her fame-if the admiring respect for an amiable lady and a woman of graceful literary genius may be so called-rests chiefly on the sketches of country life which compose Our Village. These sketches are chiefly memorable for their style, which, if not witty, is vivacious, genial, and humorous.

MITFORD, WILLIAM, was b. in London, Feb. 10, 1744, and studied at Queen's college, Oxford, but left the university without taking his degree. In 1761 he succeeded to the family estate; and in 1769 became a capt. in the South Hampshire militia, in which capacity he made the acquaintance of Gibbon, then a maj. of the same, by whose advice and encouragement he was induced to undertake a history of Greece. Mitford's first work, entitled An Inquiry into the Principles of Harmony in Languages, and of the Mechanism of Verse, Modern and Ancient, appeared in 1774; but by far his most important publication was his History of Greece, the first volume of which appeared in 1784. and the last in 1818. It is a pugnacious, opinionative, one-sided, and even fanatical production. The author is an intense bater of democracy, and can see in Philip of Macedon nothing but a great statesman, and in Demosthenes nothing but an oratorical demagogue. Yet his zeal, which so often led him astray, also urged him, for the very purpose of substantiating his views, to search more minutely and critically than his predecessors into certain portions of Greek history, and the consequence was that Mitford's work held the highest place in the opinion of scholars until the appearance of Thirlwall and Grote. He died Feb. 8, 1827.

MITHRAS (cf. Sanskrit Mitram, friend), the highest of the twenty-eight second-class divinities of the ancient Persian pantheon, the Ized (Zend. Yazata), or genius of the sun, and ruler of the universe. Protector and supporter of man in this life, he watches over his soul in the next, defending it against the impure spirits, and transferring it into the

Mithridates.

realms of eternal bliss. He is all-seeing and all-hearing, and, armed with a club-his weapon against Ahriman and the evil Dews-he unceasingly "runs his course" between heaven and earth. The ancient monuments represent him as a beautiful youth, dressed in Phrygian garb, kneeling upon an ox, into whose neck he plunges a knife; several minor, varying, allegorical emblems of the sun and his course, surrounding the group. At times he is also represented as a lion, or the head of a lion. The most important of his many festivals was his birthday, celebrated on Dec. 25, the day subsequently fixed -against all evidence-as the birthday of Christ. The worship of Mithras early found its way into Rome, and the mysteries of Mithras (Hierocoracica, Coracica Sacra), which fell in the spring equinox, were famous even among the many Roman festivals. The ceremonies observed in the initiation to these mysteries-symbolical of the struggle between Ahriman and Ormuzd (the good and the evil)-were of the most extraordinary and, to a certain degree, even dangerous character. Baptism and the partaking of a mystical liquid, consisting of flour and water, to be drunk with the utterance of sacred formulas, were among the inaugurative acts. The seven degrees—according to the number of the planets-were: 1. Soldiers; 2. Lions (in the case of men), or hyenas (in that of women); 3. Ravens; 4. Degree of Perses; 5. Of Oromios; 6. Of Helios; 7. Of fathers-the highest-who were also called eagles and hawks. At first of a merry character-thus the king of Persia was allowed to get drunk only on the feast of the mysteries-the solemnities gradually assumed a severe and rigorous aspect. From Persia the cultus of Mithras and the mysteries were imported into Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, etc., and it is not unlikely that in some parts human sacrifices were connected with this worship. Through Rome, where this worship, after many vain endeavors, was finally suppressed in 378 A.D., it may be presumed that it found its way into the w. and n. of Europe; and many tokens of its former existence in Germany, for instance, are still to be found, such as the Mithras monuments at Hedernheim, near Frankfort-on-the-Main, and at other places. Among the chief authorities on this subject are Anquetil du Perron, Creuzer, Silvestre de Sacy, Lajard, O. Müller (Denkmäler d. alten Kunst). See GUEBRES, PARSEES, ZENDAVESTA.

He

MITHRIDATES (more properly, MITHRADATES, a name formed from the Persian Mithras, or Mithra, "the sun," and an Aryan root da, to give; hence "sun-given" or "sun-born" prince), the name of several kings of Pontus, Armenia, Commagene, Parthia, and the Bosporus, all of whom have sunk into insignificance, with the exception of Mithridates VI. of Pontus, surnamed EUPATOR and DIONYSUS, but more generally known as MITHRIDATES THE GREAT. Little is known of his early career, succeeded his father, probably about 120 B.C., while under 13 years of age, and soon after subdued the tribes who bordered, on the Euxine, as far as the Chersonesus Taurica (Crimea), and after the death of Parysatis, incorporated the kingdom of the Bosporus with his dominions. The jealous behavior of the Romans, and the promptings of his own ambitious spirit, now incited him to invade Cappadocia and Bithynia, but a wholesome fear of the power of the Great Republic induced him to restore his conquests. The First Mithridatic War was commenced by the king of Bithynia (88 B.C.), who, at the instigation of the Romans, invaded Pontus. Mithridates sent an ambassador to Rome to complain of this treatment, but he was sent back with an evasive reply. Mithridates immediately commenced hostilities, and his generals repeatedly defeated the Asiatic levies of the Romans, and he himself took possession of Bithynia, Cappadocia, Phrygia, and the Roman possessions in Asia Minor, the inhabitants of which last hailed him as a deliverer. By his orders, a great massacre of the Romans took place, in which, according to one account, 80,000, and according to another 150,000 were slain. He also sent three powerful armies to aid the Greeks in their rebellion, but the disastrous battles of Charonea and Orchomenus broke his power in that country. He was, however, driven from Pergamus (85 B.C.) by Flavius Fimbria, and reduced to the necessity of making peace with Sulla, relinquishing all his conquests in Asia, giving up 70 war-galleys to the Romans, and paying 2,000 talents. The wanton aggressions of Murena, the Roman legate, gave rise to the Second Mithridatic War, in 83 B.C. Mithridates was wholly successful in this war, but peace was concluded on the status quo, 81 B.C. Mithridates felt, however, that this was merely a truce, and lost no time in preparing for a third contest, in alliance with Tigranes, king of Armenia, the next most powerful monarch of Asia. Tigranes seized Cappadocia, 76 B.C., and Mithridates, in the following year, invaded Bithynia, commencing the Third Mithridatic War. Mithridates formed an alliance with Sertorius (q.v.), and obtained the services of Roman officers of the Marian party, who trained his army after the Roman manner. The arms of Mithridates were at first successful; but afterward the Roman consul Lucullus (q.v.) compelled him to take refuge with Tigranes, 72 B.C. Lucullus then conquered Pontus, defeated Tigranes, 69 B.C., at Tigranocerta, and both Tigranes and Mithridates at Artaxata, 68 B. C. Mithridates, however, recovered possession of Pontus. After the war had lingered for some time, Cneius Pompeins (see POMPEY) completed the work of Lucullus, 66 B.C., defeating Mithridates on the Euphrates, and compelling him to flee to the Bosporus. Here his indomitable spirit prompted him to form a new scheme of vengeance, which was, however, frustrated by the rebellion of his son, Pharnaces, who besieged him in Panticapaœum. Deeming his cause hopeless, Mithridates put an end to his own life, 63 B.C. Mithridates was a

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specimen of the true eastern despot, but he possessed great ability, and extraordinary energy and perseverance. His want of success was owing not to his defects as a general, but to the impossibility of raising and training an army capable of coping with the Roman legions, and his system of tactics during the third Mithridatic war plainly shows his thorough conviction of this fact. He had received a Greek education at Sinope, could speak no less than 25 different languages and dialects, and possessed considerable love for the arts, of which his magnificent collections of pictures, statues, and engraved gems were a proof. In the estimation of the Romans, he was the most formidable opponent they ever encountered, and occasional reports of his various successes spread the utmost terror among them.

MITLA, a city in s.e. Mexico, on the plain of Mixtecapan, 15 m. s.e. of Oaxaca. The region is inhabited by the Zapoteco race, and is a city of ruins (Aztec, Mietlan, place of the dead). No positive information has been obtained as to the builders, but it is thought that its extensive ruins of monuments and edifices were the work of the progenitors of the present inhabitants. Its ruined palaces and temples, adorned with artistic sculpture, are well preserved, many roofs being supported by columns. See Charnay's Ruines Américaines.

MITRAILLEUSE, a machine-gun in which 37 or more large bored rifles are combined with breech action, by means of which a shower of bullets may be rapidly projected by one man. It was invented in Belgium, and adopted by the French emperor soon after the Prussian-Austrian war of 1866. It was the chief cannon of the French artillery during the Franco-German war of 1870. The mitrailleuse existed in a primitive form as early as the 14th c., and well-preserved specimens may be found in the arsenals and museums of Vienna, Rome, Berlin, Moscow, and Constantinople.

MITRE (Lat. mitra, also infula), the head-dress worn in solemn church services by bishops, abbots, and certain other prelates in the western church. The name, as probably the ornament itself, is borrowed from the orientals, although, in its present form, it is not in use in the Greek church, or in any other of the churches of the various eastern rites. The western mitre is a tall, tongue-shaped cap, terminating in a twofold point, which is supposed to symbolize the cloven tongues," in the form of which the Holy Ghost was imparted to the apostles, and is furnished with two flaps, which fall behind over the shoulders. Opinion is much divided as to the date at which the mitre first came into use. Eusebius, Gregory of Nazianzus, Epiphanius, and others speak of an ornamented head-dress, worn in the church; but there is no very early monument or pictorial representation which exhibits any head-covering at all resembling the modern mitre. From the 9th c., however, it is found in use, although not universally; and instances are recorded in which the popes grant permission to certain bishops to wear the mitre; as, for example, Leo IV. to Anschar, bishop of Hamburg, in the 9th century. The material used in the manufacture of the mitre is very various, often consisting of most costly stuffs, studded with gold and precious stones. The color and material differ according to the festival or the service in which the mitre is used, and there is a special prayer in the consecration service of bishops, used in investing the new bishop with his mitre. The mitre of the pope is of peculiar form, and is called by the name tiara (q.v.). Although the mitre properly belongs to bishops only, its use is also permitted by special privilege to certain abbots, to provosts of some distinguished cathedral chapters, and to a few other dignitaries. See Binterim, Denkwürdigkeiten der Kirche, 1 B. 2 Th., p. 348.

The mitre, as an ornament, seems to have descended in the earliest times from bishop to bishop. Among the Cottonian MSS. is an order dated July 1, 4 Henry VI., for the delivery to archbishop Chichely of the miter which had been worn by his predecessor. It was in some cases a very costly ornament. Archbishop Pecheham's new mitre, in 1288, cost £173 4s. 1d. In England, since the reformation, the mitre is no longer a part of the episcopal costume, but it is placed over the shield of an archbishop or bishop, instead of a crest. The mitre of a bishop has its lower rim surrounded with a fillet of gold; but the archbishops of Canterbury and York are in the practice of encircling theirs with a ducal coronet, a usage of late date and doubtful propriety. The bishop of Durham surrounds his mitre with an earl's coronet, in consequence of being titular count palatine of Durham and earl of Sedburgh. Before the custom was introduced of bishops impaling the insignia of their sees with their family arms, they sometimes differenced their paternal coat by the addition of a mitre. Mitres are rare as a charge in heraldry, but are sometimes borne as a crest, particularly in Germany, to indicate that the bearers were feudatories, or dependencies of ancient abbeys. For typical style, see illus, CEREMONIES, Vol. III., p. 638, fig. 2.

MITRE, BARTOLOMÉ, b. Buenos Ayres, 1821; became an instructor in a military college in Bolivia in 1846 and also a journalist; was next engaged as an officer in the Bolivian army in a war against Peru; then successively as editor, politician, and finally military leader again in the movement of Buenos Ayres against gen. Urquiza in 1852, which resulted in the quasi independence of that province from the Argentine confederation. After returning to peaceful pursuits, he wrote the Historia de Belgrano. In 1860, after the re-union of the seceded province to the Argentine confederation, he was chosen governor of Buenos Ayres; and in 1862, when new difficulties with the federal

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