Negative.

NEELE, HENRY, 1798-1828; b. London; studied law while quite young, but gave up that profession, choosing rather to lead a literary life. He was a well-known poet and critic, and published Odes and other Poems, 1817, delivered Lectures on Shakespeare, 1819, and published Dramatic and Miscellaneous Poetry, 1823, and Romance of English History, in 3 vols., 1827. In the latter year he gave a course of lectures on English poets of the period from Chaucer to Cowper, which were brought out in book-form after his death, styled Literary Remains. He committed suicide while temporarily insane. His poems won high praise.

NEELY, HENRY ADAMS, D.D.; b. N. Y., 1830; graduated at Hobart college, 1849, and was tutor there until 1851; became assistant-rector in Calvary church (Prot. Epis.) Utica, in 1852, and, in 1854, rector of Christ church, Rochester. He married Mary Delafield in 1858, and returned to Hobart college as chaplain, 1862. He was appointed assistant to Trinity church, New York, and rector of Trinity chapel, two years later. In 1867 he was consecrated bishop of Maine.

NEEM-TREE. See MELIACEÆ.

NEEMUCH', or NIMACH, a t. of India, in the territory of Gwalior (q. v.), near the n.w. border of Malwa, 320 m. s. w. from Delhi, on a slightly elevated ridge rising from a well-cultivated plain. It is 1476 ft. above the sea. The native population is only about 4,000; but Neemuch has acquired importance on account of a British cantonment estab lished here in 1817. Prior to the sepoy mutiny of 1857-59, the officers' quarters comprised about 80 bungalows, beautifully situated among gardens; but all, except a single bungalow, were destroyed in 1857 by the mutineers, who massacred the Europeans, and kept possession of the fort for some time, till it was captured by brig. Stuart after a siege of fourteen days. The situation of Neemuch is regarded as one of the most healthy in India; the climate is agreeable, the nights cool even in the hot season, the winter seldom so cold as to make fires requisite, and frosts very rare.

NEENAH, a village in Winnebago co., Wis.; situated on the s. side of Fox river, near the outlet of lake Winnebago; on the Milwaukee Northern, the Wisconsin Central, and the Chicago and Northwestern railroads, 90 m. n. by w. of Milwaukee. Pop. of town. ship, '80, 588. Has a fine park, and good water power; is a favorite resort for summer travelers. Pop. of vill., '80, 4,202.

NEER, ARNOULD or AAART, VAN DER, 1619-83; b. Amsterdam; sometimes called the "moonlight painter." His usual subjects are villages with fishermen's huts along the banks of canals. He is most successful in his moonlight pieces.

NEER WINDEN, a small village of Belgium, in the n. w. corner of the province of Liege, is celebrated in history for the great victory gained by the French under Luxembourg over the English under William III. (July 29, 1693); and also for the defeat of the French under Dumouriez by the allies under the prince of Coburg (March 18, 1793).

NEES VON ESENBECK, CHRISTIAN GOTTFRIED DANIEL, 1776-1858; b. Germany; educated at the Darmstadt gymnasium and the university of Jena. He studied medicine, after practicing which, for a short time, he was called to the chair of botany at the university of Erlangen. He was soon made president of the Leopoldine academy of naturalists, and professor of botany at Bonn, where he was one of the founders of a new botanical institution. In 1830 he accepted the posts of professor of botany and director of the botanic garden at Breslau. He took an active interest in the agitations which preceded the revolutionary movement of 1848, and was a promi nent member of a Breslau religious organization named the Kristkatholiken, and aiming at various charitable and humanitarian purposes. He lived at Berlin for a time in 1848, participating in the democratic agitation then at its height throughout Europe. Returning to Breslau, he established a "fraternity of workingmen," with the object of diffusing education among laborers, maintaining harmony between them and their em ployers, etc. This society excited the hostility of the government, which ordered him to dissolve his connection with it. A prosecution was soon instituted against him for living with a woman without having been divorced from his wife. Both, this prosecu tion and his deposition from the chair of botany in 1852, were supposed to be due to political motives, and the distrust felt by the government for his democratic principles and influence with the laboring classes. Deprived of his salary, he had to sell his library and his collection of botanical specimens. In spite of his reformatory activity, and his researches in regard to spiritualism, in which he was a believer, he found time to con tinue his botanical studies, and became one of the first botanists of Europe. In his Handbook of Botany, 1821, he developed the theory advanced by Goethe in his Metamorphosis of Plants, that all the parts of the flower are only variations of the leaf. This work had been preceded by his Fresh Water Alga, 1814; by System of Fungi and Sponges, 1816; and by Plant Substance, 1819, in which he was assisted by Rothe and Bischof. He published, in 1833, Genera et Species Asterearum; in 1836, Systema Laurinarum; and in 1841, Flora Africa Australiaris Illustrationes Monographica. In 1852 appeared the first volume of his Universal Etymology of Nature. He was a specialist on cryptogamous plants, and in this branch of botany his chief work is Natural History of the European Water-Liver wort, 1833-38.

NE EXEAT REGNO is the title of a writ issued by the court of chancery to prevent an individual leaving the kingdom, unless he gives security to abide a decree of that court. The writ was originally resorted to in cases of attempts against the safety of the state, but is now issued in cases where an equitable debt or demand is sought to be substantiated by a bill or proceeding in chancery. The writ is only granted where the party usually resides within the jurisdiction. It resembles the process which is known in the common-law courts as arresting and holding to bail, and in Scotland as arresting a person in meditatione fuga.

*NE EXEAT REPUBLICA, another name for the writ ne exeat regno (q.v.), the word republic or state being substituted for kingdom. The writ is rarely used in the United States, and chiefly in cases involving a breach of trust or official administration. See Supp., page 888.

NEFF, FELIX, 1798-1829; b. at Geneva, Switzerland. He received his early educa tion from his widowed mother, who was distinguished for piety, and had occasional lessons from some pastor of his native canton. His favorite authors in youth were Plutarch and Rousseau, and he was fond of mathematics and natural history. At an early age he was placed with a florist-gardener, and at 17 entered the army, that he might not longer be a burden to his poor mother. His excellent character and fidelity soon raised him to the rank of sergt. His strict religious principles and the purity of his life provoked the hostility of his associates, and he decided to leave the army. Being advised to enter the ministry he resigned his commission in 1819, and offered himself as a catechist or parish missionary. The first years of his missionary life were spent in the cantons of Geneva, Neufchâtel, Bern, and the Pays de Vaud. In 1821 he went to the destitute district of Grenoble in France, and afterward to Mens in Isère. Religious scruples preventing his being ordained in the established church of Geneva, and his being a foreigner rendering it impossible to obtain ordination from the Protestant church of France, he went to England, and having been ordained in 1823 by the Congregationalists he returned to Mens, the scene of his former labors. But his heart was with the destitute on the mountains, and, turning away from those by whom he was greatly beloved, he went to the high Alps, and labored with great courage and zeal among the descendants of the Vaudois in the wild picturesque valleys of Queyras and Freyssinières. Here he preached, organized schools, dedicated churches, laboring incessantly among those lonely glens and dreary mountains. His pastoral work was performed in a poor Alpine district, comprising 17 isolated villages within a circuit of 80 miles. In one part of his parish the people were so degraded as to be scarcely removed from the condition of barbarians. As they needed education and were unable to pay a teacher, he became school-master as well as preacher. They became so much interested that they built a school-house, he directing the workmen and acting himself as architect and mason. Exhausted by these labors he visited the baths of Plombières, but returned to Geneva without permanent benefit. Companies of the poor people of the Alpine valleys made long journeys on foot through the snow to see their beloved dying pastor.

NEGAPATAM', a t. of British India, in the presidency of Madras, and district of Tanjore, 124 m. s. s. w. from Madras, on a small estuary of one of the many small southern mouths of the Cauvery. The manufacture of cotton and silk fabrics was, in former times, extensively carried on here, but has greatly declined in consequence of the cheapness of British goods. A chief branch of industry is the expression of oil from the cocoa-nut and from oil-seeds. There is a considerable trade with Ceylon, The harbor is suited only for small coasting-vessels; but measures are in progress for its improvement. Negapatam is a terminus of the Great Southern railway of India. It was the capital of the Dutch possessions in India, but was taken by the British in 1781. Pop. '71, 48,525.

NEGATIVE, in photography, is that kind of photographic picture in which the lights and shadows of the natural object are transposed; the high lights being black, and the deep shadows transparent, or nearly so. Negatives are taken on glass and paper by various processes, and should indicate with extreme delicacy, and in reverse order, the various gradations of light and shade which occur in a landscape or portrait. A negative differs from a positive inasmuch as in the latter case it is required to produce a deposit of pure metallic silver to be viewed by reflected light; while in the latter, density to transmitted light is the chief desideratum: accordingly inorganic reducing and retarding agents are employed in the development of a positive, while those of organic origin are used in the production of a negative. Adopting the collodion process (which has almost completely replaced every other) as a type of the rest, the conditions best adapted for securing a good negative may be briefly indicated, leaving it to the reader to apply the principles involved to any process he may desire to practice.

The possession of a good lens and camera being taken for granted, and favorable conditions of well-directed light being secured, all that is necessary is to establish a proper and harmonious relation between the collodion bath, developer, and time of exposure. A recently iodized collodion will generally be tolerably neutral, in which case, if the developer be at all strong, and the weather warm, the bath should be decidedly acid, or fogging will be the result. Should the collodion, however, be red with free iodine, a mere trace of acid in the bath will suffice, while the development may be much prolonged, even in warm weather, without fogging. If the simple fact

Negritos.

be borne in mind that the presence of acid, either in the bath collodion or developer, retards the reducing action of the developer, it will suffice to guide the operator in many difficulties. The value of a negative consists in the power it gives of multiplying positive proofs. See POSITIVE PRINTING; also PHOTOGRAPHY,

as

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NEGATIVE QUANTITIES are generally defined as quantities the opposite of "positive" or numerical" quantities, and form the first and great point of difference between algebra as a separate science and arithmetic. In the oldest treatises on algebra they are recognized as distinct modifications of quantity, and existing apart from, and independent of, positive quantity. In later times, this opinion was vigorously combated by many mathematicians, among whom Vieta occupied a prominent place; but the more eminent analysts retained the old opinion. Newton and Euler distinctly assert the existence of negative quantities as quantities less than zero, and the latter supports his opinion by the well-known illustration of a man who has no property, and is £50 in debt, to whom £50 requires to be given in order that he may have nothing. After all, this discussion is little more than a verbal quibble, though interesting from the prominent position it for a long time held. It had its rise in the difficulty of satisfying the requirements of a constantly progressing science by the use of signs and forms retaining their original limited signification. It was soon felt that the limited interpretation must be given up; and accordingly an extension of signification was allowed to signs and modes of operation. + and -, which were formerly considered as merely symbols of the arithmetical operations of addition and subtraction, were now considered general cumulative symbols, the reverse of each other," and could signify gain and loss, upward and downward, right and left, same and opposite, to and from, etc. Apply ing this extended interpretation of signs to a quantity such as -4, we obtain at once a true idea of a negative quantity; for if +4 signifies 4 in. above a certain level, −4 signifies 4 in. below that level, and therefore, though a positive quantity in itself (a negative being, strictly speaking, an impossible existence), it may be fairly considered to be less than zero, as it expresses a quantity less by 4 than 0 inches above the level. Keeping this idea in view it has been conventionally agreed to admit the existence of negative quantities as existing per se. The only errors which can flow from this arise from misinterpretation of results, for the four fundamental operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division are unaffected by the extended interpretation of signs. The following is an illustration of the value of an extended interpretation of the negative sign, showing at the same time how much more general are the ideas conveyed by alge braic expressions than by ordinary language: If at the present time a father is 50 years, and his son 20 years old, when will the father be three times as old as his son. This problem when solved, gives −5 as the number of years which must elapse before the father's age is three times the son's. Now, at first sight, this result appears to be absurd, but when we consider the terms of the problem, its explanation is easy. The question asked pointed to a number of years to come, and had the result turned out to be positive, such would have been the case, and the fact of its being negative directs us to look in a “contrary" direction, or backward to time past; and this is found to satisfy the problem as five years"ago" the father was 45 and his son 15.

Negative quantities arise out of the use of general symbols in subtraction, as in the formula a − b, where we may afterward find that b is greater than a. See SUBTRACTION. NEGAU'NEE, a village in Marquette co., Mich., 12 m. s. w. from Marquette on Iron mountain; on the Chicago and Northwestern railroad, and at the junction with the Marquette, Houghton and Ontonagon railroad; pop. '80, 3,931. Teal lake, a beautiful sheet of water, is on the n. border. It has large iron mines in which a considerale capital is invested. It has blast furnaces, a nitro-glycerine factory, banks, public schools, churches, and weekly newspapers.

NEGLEY, JAMES S., b. Penn., 1826; was a student at Western university; entered the Mexican war as a private, and at the outbreak of the rebellion enlisted within 8 days a brigade of volunteers for 3 months, and was appointed brig. gen. April 19, 1861; fought with the army of the Ohio in Alabama and Tennessee; was in command at Lavergne Oct. 7, 1862, where he defeated Anderson and Forrest; promoted to maj.gen. for his bravery at Stone river, Dec., 1862, and served in the Georgia campaign. As a republican, he represented Pittsburg in congress 1869-75 and 1885-87.

NEGLIGENCE, in law, such want of due diligence and caution, though unaccom panied by injurious or criminal intent, as will give ground for a civil action for damages or will justify a criminal prosecution. The obligation to exercise caution may arise from a contract, express or implied, or from a rule or presumption of law; and the degree of care and caution which must be exercised varies greatly under different circumstances. The theoretical distinction between gross negligence and fraud or criminal intent is clear, but in practice it is often difficult to decide which exists in the particular circumstances. Where a contract is for any reason contrary to law, negligence in carrying out its provisions is, of course, no cause for action; and if an infant neglect to carry out a contract voidable on the score of infancy, he is not liable; though he may often be held for negli gence amounting to a tort and altogether outside of contract obligations. If the negli rence relate to contract, only a party to that contract can sue, whoever may be injured indirectly, while in torts it is the person receiving the actual injury who has a claim for

Negritos.

damages. It is not enough to constitute a valid claim that there has been a want of care; for, first, the negligent party may have been under no obligations to exercise care toward the person injured: thus, where a railway accident is brought about by the grossest negligence on the part of the company, if an individual passenger were injured who was obtaining his passage by fraud, he would have no claim, and, secondly, though the obligation might exist and negligence occur, yet it might be so slight compared with the nature of the transaction as to make it obviously unjust to hold the negligent party. Again, if the injured party has himself been negligent and has thus contributed" to his own damage, he will have no action. This principle of contributory negligence" is based upon public policy in part and in part upon the belief that a loss brought upon a plaintiff by his own act should not give him compensation. But it is not a good bar to an action to prove that, if the plaintiff had not done a certain act, he would not have been injured; the negligence, like that of the defendant, must have been actual, and care required of him by some legal or natural obligation. It is generally held that the burden of proof is on the defendant as to contributory negligence; that is, the plaintiff or injured party will be supposed to have acted with due care until the contrary is shown. The doctrine of contributory negligence presents many difficult questions on trial, not so much as to the law, as in determining the respective rights of the parties and the degree in which either was or both were negligent. By the common law, if death were occasioned by negligence, no action for damages could be had by the near relatives; but by an English statute and by similar enactments in most of the states of this country, suit may be brought by the administrator or executor in behalf of a husband or wife or next of kin, wherever death has been caused by negligence or wrongful act. Where the original injury has been increased by the willful act or negligence of the plaintiff, he cannot include the more remote damage in his claim. Thus, where physical injury is received and medical care is refused-the refusal resulting in permanent loss of health which would otherwise not have followed-there can be no claim for damages on that account. Every man is bound so to use his own property as not to injure another. Thus, the owner of animals which are vicious or have a contagious disease is bound to keep them under proper restraint; and the digger of a pit on his own land is liable, if it be near an unfenced highway and unprotected. Professional men are bound to exercise a fair average skill in their profession. A superior is, in general, responsible for the negli gence of an agent or employee when acting in the scope of his employment, but the servant is, in turn, liable to the master. Most important decisions as to the degree of care required of railroad corporations may be seen in Redfield on Railroads. In general it may be said that extraordinary care is demanded of all public carriers. As to negligence by public officers in performing their official duties, see OFFICE. Three degrees of care or diligence and corresponding degrees of negligence, are usually described, apportioned to the relative circumstances and responsibilities of the parties: where one is required to use but slight care and is responsible only for gross negligence; where he is required to use ordinary care and is liable for ordinary neglect; and where he is required to use very great care and is responsible for but slight neglect. This classification is applied more especially to the subject of Bailments (q. v.). Where the bailment is for the benefit of the bailor, but slight care is required of the bailee; where the benefit is mutual, as in cases of hiring, ordinary care is required; and where the bailee is the only one who benefits by the bailment, extraordinary diligence is required and the slightest negligence will give cause for action. The exceptions to the second statement are the bailments to common-carriers and innkeepers where public policy requires that a very great degree of care should be exercised. Negligence, not coexistent with any criminal intent, may in certain cases constitute a crime. Thus, where the negligent act of one man results in the death of a second, the circumstances may make the first guilty of manslaughter. So where an officer of the law allows a prisoner to escape, not having been tampered with, but through mere carelessness, he is criminally guilty. The subject of negligence may be found treated in detail in Shearman on Negligence, Addison and Hilliard on Torts, Redfield on Railroad Law, and Bishop on Criminal Law.

NEGOTIABLE PAPER. See BILL OF EXCHANGE; EXCHANGE,

NEGRELLI, ALOYS VON, 1799-1858; b. in the Tyrol; constructed the first Swiss railroad, from the German border to Zürich, also the first Austrian railroad, completed 1841; the Austrian Northern railroad secured him as chief inspector, which position he held till 1849, when he was appointed director of public works. In 1855 he assumed full charge of all Austrian railroads, from which position he was called, two years later, by the viceroy of Egypt, to superintend the cutting of the Suez canal, at which work he spent the last year of his life.

NEGRITOS, or NEGRILLOS (Spanish, diminutive of negroes), is the name given by the Spaniards to certain negro-like tribes inhabiting the interior of some of the Philippine islands, and differing essentially both in features and manners from the Malay inhabitants of the Eastern archipelago. They bear a very strong resemblance to the negroes of Guinea, but are much smaller in size, averaging in height not more than 4 ft. 8 in.. whence their appellation of Negritos, or little negroes. They are also called by the Spaniards Negritos del Monte, from their inhabiting the mountainous districts for the most part; and one of the islands where they are most numerous bears the name of

Negro.

Isla de los Negros. These Negritos are also known by the names Aeta, Aigta, Ite, Inapta, and Igolote, or Igorote. They are described as a short, small, but well-made and active people, the lower part of the face projecting like that of the African negroes, the hair either woolly or frizzled, and the complexion exceedingly dark, if not quite so black as that of the negroes. The Spaniards describe them as less black and less ugly than the negroes-Menos negros y menos feos. All writers concur in speaking of them as sunk in the lowest depths of savagedom, wandering in the woods and mountains, without any fixed dwellings, and with only a strip of bark to cover their nakedness. Their only weapons are the bow and arrow; and they live upon roots, wild fruits, and any sort of animals that they can surprise in their haunts or conquer in the chase. By the Malays they are despised and hated; and the buffalo-hunters in the woods, when they meet with them, do not scruple to shoot them down like wild beasts or game. "It has not come to my knowledge," says a Spanish writer, "that a family of these negroes ever took up their abode in a village. If the Mohammedan inhabitants make slaves of them, they will rather submit to be beaten to death than undergo any bodily fatigue; and it is impossible, either by force or persuasion, to bring them to labor." The same writer, an ecclesiastic, speaks of them as gentle and inoffensive in their manners, whenever he himself came in contact with them; and although informed that some of them were cannibals, he was not inclined to believe the report. Dr. Carl Scherzer, the historian of the circumnavigation of the Norara, when at Manilla, had an opportunity of seeing a Negrita girl, whom he thus describes: This was a girl of about 12 or 14 years of age, of dwarf-like figure, with woolly hair, broad nostrils, but without the dark skin and wide everted lips which characterize the negro type. This pleasing-looking, symmetrically-formed girl had been brought up in the house of a Spaniard, apparently with the pious object of rescuing her soul from heathenism. The poor little Negrilla hardly understood her own mother-tongue, besides a very little Tagal, so that we had considerable difliculty in understanding each other.

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According to Spanish statements the Negritos are found only in five of the Philip pine islands-namely, Luzon, Mindoro, Panay, Negros, and Mindanao-and are estimated at about 25,000 souls. Remnants of them exist, however, in the interior of some of the other islands in the Eastern archipelago; and they are scattered, also, though in small numbers, through certain islands of Polynesia. They are altogether an island people, and are hence treated of by Prichard under the designation of Pelagian negroes. By Dr. Pickering they are treated of as a distinct race, resembling the Papuan, but differing from it in the diminutive stature, the general absence of a beard, the projecting of the lower part of the face or the inclined profile, and the exaggerated negro features. The hair, also, is more woolly than that of the Papuans, though far from equaling that of the negroes in knotty closeness. By Latham the Negritos are classified under the subdivision of Oceanic Mongolidæ, C," which subdivision is further modified by him into the designation of "Amphinesians" and Kelænonesians." The Negritos out of the Philippine islands are found for the most part in the islands embraced under the latter designation, as New Guinea, New Ireland, Solomon's isles, Louisiade, New Caledonia, and Tasmania or Van Diemen's Land. Except in the last-mentioned island, however, the Negritos, strictly speaking-that is, the blackish people with woolly hairdo not preponderate over the other native tribes less strongly marked with negro features; while in Tasmania itself the race has almost entirely disappeared, amounting at present to not more than two or three dozen souls. Dr. Pickering is of opinion that the Neg rito race once occupied more space than it does at this time, and that it has in many instances preceded the dissemination of other races." We conclude with a description of a Negrito native of Erromango (the island where the missionary Williams was mur dered), supplied to Dr. Pickering by Horatio Hales, his associate in the United States exploring expedition: "He was about 5 ft. high," says Mr. Hales, "slender and long limbed; he had close woolly hair, and retreating arched forehead, short and scanty eyebrows, and small snub nose, thick lips (especially the upper), a retreating chin, and that projection of the jaws and lower part of the face which is one of the distinctive char acteristics of the negro race. Placed in a crowd of African blacks, there was nothing about him by which he could have been distinguished from the rest." PAPUANS and POLYNESIANS.

NE GRO, RIO. See RIO NEGRO.

See

NEGROES (from the Spanish word negro, black; Lat. niger) is the name given to a considerable branch of the human family possessing certain physical characteristics. which distinguish it in a very marked degree from the other branches or varieties of mankind-more especially the so-called whites or Europeans. In Blumenbach's five-fold division of mankind the negroes occupy the first place under the variety Ethiopian, which likewise embraces the Kaffers, Hottentots, Australians, Alforians, and Oceanic In Latham's threefold division they are placed among the Atlantida, and form the primary subdivision of Negro Atlantide in that author's classification; while in Pickering's eleven-fold division they occupy the last place in his enumeration of the races of mankind.

negroes.

Both Prichard and Latham strongly protest against the common error of looking upon the term negro as synonymous with African. It ought to be remembered," says the