Nalodaya

son of the duke of Argyle, and are still in the possession of his descendants. Not a few other objects of antiquarian interest are to be found in the county of Nairn.

NAISSANT, a term applied in heraldric blazon to an animal depicted as coming forth out of the middle-not like issuant or jessant (q.v.), out of the boundary line-of an ordinary.

NAJA. See COBRA DA CAPELLO.

NAKAMURA MASANAWO, a Japanese scholar and writer, b. in Yedo about 1825, one of a hereditary guild of learned men in the university of Yedo, under the patronage of the Tokugawa "tycoons." To his profound knowledge of Chinese and native literature, he added some acquaintance with the Dutch, but soon abandoned it for the English language, a dictionary of which he laboriously copied with the pen. In 1866 he went to England, and studied there two years. Returning to Japan in 1868, he went into seclusion with his master the tycoon, and while there translated into Japanese the constitution of the United States, Washington's farewell address, John Stuart Mill's essay "On Liberty," a copious selection of long passages from the works of standard American and English authors, and an anonymous plea in behalf of Christianity. Voluntarily resigning his rank among the gentry (samurai), he laid aside his two swords, founded a private school, and became a vigorous reformer and practical philanthropist. In 1875 he was made chief director of the imperial female normal school. He has also translated Wheaton's International Law, and Smiles's Self-Help. He belongs to that quiet but powerful class of men whose words and example have revolutionized Japan.

NAKCHIVAN: a town of Asiatic Russia, Transcaucasia, 83 m. s.e. of Erivan. It is the capital of a district of the same name, comprising also the towns Abbasabad, Mergeri, and Terra Kali which is separated southward from Persia by the Arras river, and was ceded to Russia, 1828. The name is from the Armenian, Naxuana, "first place of descent," and popular tradition asserts it to be the place where the survivors of the deluge landed, and where Noah planted the vine. The district abounds in fruit, especially grapes, and is also rich in salt, but is noted for insalubrity. Pop. of the town, 8,772.

NAKHICHEVAN, ON THE DON, a thriving town of south Russia, in the government of Ekaterinoslav, on the right bank of the Don, and near the mouth of that river, two miles east of Rostov. It was founded in 1779 by Armenian settlers from the Crimea, and has (1880) 16,258 inhabitants, mostly Armenians, belonging to the Greek-Armenian church. The inhabitants are engaged in the manufacture of silver ornaments and woolen goods, and an extensive trade is carried on.

NAKSHATRA (a Sanscrit word of doubtful etymology, but propably a compound of an obsolete base, naksha, night, and tra, protecting, i.e., literally night-protecting) means properly star, and is used in this sense in the Vedas. At a later period it was applied to the asterisms lying in the moon's path, or to the mansions in which the moon is supposed to rest in her, or rather, according to Hindu notions, his path. The number of these asterisms was reckoned originally at 27, later at 28; and mythology transformed them into as many daughters of the patriarch Daksha, who became the wives of the moon. See MOON. Biot, the distinguished French astronomer, endeavored to show that the Hindu system of the Nakshatras was derived from the Chinese sien; but his theory, though supported by very learned arguments, has been refuted by prof. Whitney, in his notes to Burgess's translation of the Súrya-Siddhanta (New Haven, United States, 1860), and by prof. Müller in his preface to the fourth volume of the Rig- Veda (Lond. 1862); for their arguments leave little doubt that the system of the Nakshatras originated from the Hindu mind.

NAKSHIVAN', a t. in Russian Armenia, near the Aras river; pop. 8,772. According to Armenian tradition it is the oldest city in the world, and was founded by Noah, after the flood. It passed into the hands of the Russians in 1827.

NALA is a legendary king of ancient India-a king of Nishadha-whose love for Damayanti, the daughter of Bhima, king of Vidarbha, and the adventures arising from, or connected with it-the loss of his kingdom, the abandonment of his wife and chil dren, and their ultimate restoration-have supplied several Hindu poets with the subject The oldest poem relating to Nala and Damayanti is a celebrated episode of the Mahabharata (q.v.), edited both in India and Europe, and translated in Latin by Bopp: in German by Kosegarten, Bopp, Rückert, and Meier; and in English by dean Milman. The two other renowned poems treating of the same legend, but with far less completeness, are the Nalodaya (q.v.) and the Naishadhacharita of Sri-Harsha.

of their muse.

NALODAYA is the name of a Sanscrit poem which is highly prized by the modern Hindus. Its subject is the story of Nala (q. v.), but more concisely narrated than in the episode of the Mahabharata, whence its contents are borrowed; and its reputed author is Kalidasa (q.v.). Great doubts, however, must attach to the attribution of the authorship, if by Kalidasa the author of Sakuntala is meant, and not some other poet bearing the same name; for the merits of this poem consist neither in elevation of thought nor in richness of fiction: they are sought for by the Hindus in its elaborate and artificial diction, and in its alliteration of every variety, which, to a European mind of culture and taste, would be no more than an intolerable' jingle of sounds, devoid of all poetical worth. The text

Name.

of the poem, with a modern commentary, has been edited (Berlin, 1830) by F. Benary, and (Calcutta, 1844) by W. Yates, who added to his edition a free metrical translation of the text and an essay on Sanscrit alliteration.

NAMA'QUALAND, GREAT. The extensive region in South Africa n. of the cape Colony, extending from the Orange river, lat. 29° 30', to Walfish bay, lat. 23°, and stretching inland from the w. coast to the Kalihari desert, comprehending an area of about 100,000 sq.m., is known under the name of Great Namaqualand, being principally inhabited by wandering tribes of Namaquas (q.v.). This region is drained principally by a large periodical water-course, called the Oup, Borradaile, or Great Fish river, which, running from n. to s., a distance of about 450 m., joins the Orange river nearly at right angles, about 90 m. from its mouth. It is generally, except in its northern parts, where the country rises into extensive and lofty plateaus, a most sterile and barren region, and along a coast-line of upwards of 400 m. does not present a single running stream much less a navigable river, although a few little bays along the coast, such as Angra Pequena, Sandwich harbor, and Walfish bay, afford safe anchorages. The valley of the Oup is bounded on each side by ranges of flat-topped barren mountains, which to the eastward die away into the waterless though wooded flats of the Kalihari desert, and coastwards stretch into vast sandy downs, against which the southern Atlantic beats an unceasing surf, rendering landing very dangerous, and enveloping the coast in a perpetual mist. The chief productions of the region are cattle, for the rearing of which the country seems favorable. On the edge of the Kalihari, ivory and ostrich feathers are collected, and copper ore seems abundant in several localities. Guano is found at Ichaboe and many little islands on the coast, and considerable fisheries are carried on by cape houses in many of the bays.

The lion, giraffe, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, and large game generally, are still found in Namaqualand, although fast diminishing before the fire-arms of the Namaquas. The snakes are considered especially venomous. The gemsbok, eland, and other large antelopes, now almost unknown in the Cape Colony, are still numerous in the littlefrequented wastes of this region. The climate is extreme, and though, on the whole, not unhealthy, is very trying to European constitutions. The water is generally brackish. The first English traveler in Namaqualand, was sir J. Alexander, who, in 1837, traversed it from n. to south. Charles John Andersson has also explored every part of it. mation on the region may be also found in the travels of Moffat, Campbell, and Le Vaillant. The native tribes, who may perhaps number about 40,000 souls, speak the Namaqua language, the purest type of the Hottentot.

Infor.

NAMAQUALAND, LITTLE, is a division of Cape Colony s. of the Orange river, formerly part of the district of Clanwilliam, and included with the country n. of it under the general name of Namaqualand. It is a very barren region, covered with rugged volcanic-looking hills, through which the Gariep or Great Orange river appears, through some convulsion of nature, to have forced its way to the sea. Little Namaqualand has of late years afforded a very large supply of copper ore of excellent quality (in 1878 near 12,000 tons); but the mines, although well known to the Dutch 200 years ago, were not worked till after 1852. The principal river is the Orange of the colonists, which divides the Cape Colony from Great Namaqualand; all the other streams are merely periodical torrents, often dry for years. The seat of magistracy is at Springbok Fontein, about 80 m. from the principal harbor, Hondeklip bay, and where are situated the very rich mines of the Cape copper company. Many scattered tribes of Namaquas and Bastard Hottentots roam along the bank of the Orange river, and in the neighborhood of the mines are numerous Dutch farmers and English settlers. All the larger mammalia, except a few gemsbok, are extirpated; but troops of ostriches are still numerous on the grassy flats of the Bushman country. The geological features of this region are peculiarly interesting, and have been thoroughly explored by A. Wylie, on behalf of the Cape government. The rocks are generally of granite or gneiss, intersected with numerous veins of cupreous indications, and near the Oarnge river present many very curious features. The coast line extends for 100 m., with a few little bays, such as port Nalloth and Hondeklip, where there is tolerably safe anchorage, and generally presents a shore covered with low granite rocks. At Hondeklip bay a large boulder painted red forms a distinguishing landmark.

NAMA QUAS, the principal existing tribe of the race generally known under the name of Hottentot. They inhabit the region called Great Namaqualand, n. of the Gariep or Orange river, and the country a few miles s. of it, as far as the Kamiesbergen. They are a pastoral people of rather predatory habits, and live under the rule of their chiefs, whose powers, however, are of a very limited nature. Differing from the Bosjesmen Hottentots, the Namaquas are a tall, well-made, active people, although presenting the usual peculiarities of the race, such as the light olive complexion, the oblique eye, and short tufted hair. They speak a dialect of the Hottentot language, which, however, differs considerably from that used by other tribes of that people. Mission stations of the Rhenish and Weselyan societies have been for many years established amongst them, and in a few localities, near the Cape Colony, with considerable success; and the New Testament and some elementary works have been translated into the Namaqua dialect. On the northern borders of the regions they inhabit, the Namaquas, under the chief

Africaner, the descendant of a fugitive slave from Cape Colony, have for many years kept up a predatory and bloody war with the tribes of Ovampos and Damaros, who live n. of Walfish bay. The total number of Namaquas cannot exceed between 50,000 and 60,000 souls, scattered over a region of at least 150,000 sq.m.; and there is every prospect of the pure Hottentot tribes soon becoming extinct, or at least absorbed, being gradually supplanted by the more energetic and civilized Bastard races, who, in point of civilization and appearance, are very little inferior to the ordinary Dutch Boer of Cape Colony. Many of the southern Namaquas possess wagons and oxen, and are employed in the transport of copper ore from the mines of Little Namaqualand to the shipping port at Hondeklip bay.

A few of the peculiar customs of the Hottentot tribes, described by Kolben nearly 200 years ago, may be still traced amongst the more remote tribes of the Namaquas; but contact with the Cape Colonists, and the efforts of the missionaries, have partially civilized this race, so that an ordinary Hottentot is quite as respectable a savage, or per haps more so than his Betjouana or Amakosa brethren.

NAMAYCUSH (Salmo namaycush), a fish nearly allied to the salmon and trout, a native of the great lakes and interior rivers of North America. It is often taken of a size varying from 20 to 40 lbs., and is said sometimes to reach 60 lbs. It is much esteemed for the table. It is caught at the same fisheries with the still more prized whitefish (q.v.).

NAME (Sax. nama, Ger. name, Lat. nomen, Gr. onoma), the word by which a parti cular person or thing is signfied in distinction from other persons or things. A name attached to a person is called a proper name. Names distinguishing one individual from another have been in use from the earliest ages of human society. Among the Jews, the name given to a child either originated in some circumstance of birth, or was an expression of religious sentiment. Old Testament names are almost all original-i.e., given in the first instance to the person bearing them; but the Jews, like other nations, after accumlating a considerable stock of names, began to repeat them, and we find few names in the New Testament which had not been used before. In Old Testament times, it was an occasional practice to adopt a change of name on the occasion of an important event in one's life.

The Greeks bore only one name, given on the tenth day after birth, which it was the right of the father to choose, and alter if he pleased. The earliest Greek names are generally expressive of some quality in high estimation, as valor, skill, wisdom, or gracefulness (Callimachus, excellent fighter; Pherecrates, strength bringer; Sophron, wise; Melanthus, black flower). In later times, when the faith in the gods was on the wane, names derived from Apollo and Athene, or indicative of the favor of Olympus (Apollodorus, gift of Apollo), came more into fashion. The eldest son generally bore the name of his paternal grandfather, and the confusion arising from the repetition of the same name was attempted to be obviated by appending the father's name (either simply, or turned into a patronymic), the occupation, the place of birth, or a nick

name.

The Romans at a very early period bore two names, and afterward every Roman citizen had three. The prænomen, like our Christian name, was personal to the individual-Caius, Marcus, Cneius; in writing, generally abbreviated to an initial or two letters, C., M., or Cn. It was given in early times on the attainment of puberty, and afterward on the ninth day after birth. There were about thirty recognized prænomina. Women had no prænomia till marriage, when they took the feminine form of that borne by their husband. Every Roman citizen belonged both to a gens and to a familia included in that gens. The second name was the nomen gentilicium, generally ending in ius, eius, or -aius. The third name was the hereditary cognomen belonging to the familia. Cognomina were often derived from some bodily peculiarity, or event in the life of the founder of the family. A second cognomen, or agnomen, as it was called, was sometimes added by way of honorary distinction. In common intercourse, the prænomen and cognomen were used without the nomen gentilicium, as C. Cæsar for C. Julius Cæsar, M. Cicero for M. Tullius Cicero. The Roman names were in their origin less dignified and aspiring than the Greek; some were derived from ordinary employments, as Porcius (swinehead), Cicero (vetch grower); some from personal peculiarities, Crassus (fat), Naso (long-nosed); a few from numerals, Sextus, Septimus.

The Celtie and Teutonic names, like the Jewish and Greek, had been originally very significant; but at an early period their exuberance became checked; people contented themselves with repeating the old stock. While the speech of Europe was undergoing a transformation, the names in use remained the same; belonging to an obsolete tongue, their signification by and by became unintelligible to the people using them. Many are derived from "God," as Gottfried, Godwin; some from an inferior class of gods known by the title as or ans, whence Anselm, Oscar, Esmond; others from elves or genii, Alfred, Alboin, Elfric (Elf King). Bertha is the name of a favorite feminine goddess and source of light, from the same root as the word "bright;" the same word occurs as a compound in Albrecht, Bertram. To a large class of names indicating such qualities as personal prowess, wisdom, and nobility of birth, belong Hildebrand (war brand), Konrad (bold in counsel), Hlodwig (glorious warrior), called by us Clovis, and the

original of Ludwig and Louis. The wolf, the bear, the eagle, the boar, and the lion entered into the composition of many proper names of men, as Adolf (noble wolf), Arnold (valiant eagle), Osborn (God bear). Respect for feminine prowess also appeared in such names as Mathilde (mighty amazon), Wolfhilde (wolf heroine). The spread of Christianity threw a number of the old names into comparative oblivion, and introduced new ones. The name selected at baptism was more frequently taken from the history of the Bible or the church than from the old traditional repertory, which, however, was never altogether disused. Many names, supposed to be local and very ancient, particularly in the Scottish highlands, Wales, and Cornwall, are in reality but corruptions of names of Christian origin which are in use elsewhere. Owen, Evan, and Eoghan (the latter often anglicized into Hector) seem all to be forms of Johann or John. A change of name was sometimes made at confirmation.

Periods of religious and political excitement have had a very powerful influence in modifying the fashion in names. The Puritans would only admit of two classes of names, those directly expressive of religious sentiment-praise-God, live-well-and names which occur in Scripture; these latter indiscriminately made use of, however obscure their meaning, or however indifferent the character of the original bearer of them. Old Testament names were used in preference to New, probably because they did not convey the notion of a patron saint. Old Testament names still prevail largely in America, where exists a medley of Christian names from all possible sources. At the French revolution, names supposed to savor of either loyalty or religion were abandoned, and those of Greek and Roman heroes came into vogue instead. The Augustan period of English literature gave a temporary popularity to such feminine names as Narcissa, Celia, Sabina. In Germany, the names in use are particularly free from foreign admixture; they are almost all either of Teutonic origin, or connected with the early history of Christianity. In Britain, the number of names has, particularly since the reformation, been more limited than in most other countries. In some families of distinction, unusual names have been handed down from father to son for centuries-e.g., Peregrine among the Berties, and Sholto in the Douglas family. The accumulation of two or more Christian names only became common in the present century, and another practice which has gained ground in Britain is the use of surnames as Christian names. More recently, various old names, particularly feminine names, as Maud, Florence, Ethel, have been withdrawn from their obscurity, and resuscitated.

The use of fixed family surnames cannot be traced much further back than the latter part of the 10th century. They first came into use in France, and particularly in Nor mandy. At the Conquest, they were introduced into England by the Norman adventurers, and were general at the Domesday Valuation. Many of the followers of William had taken names from their paternal chateaux or villages on the other side of the channel, names which were used with the French preposition de before them. Their younger sons and others applied the "de" to estates awarded them as their portion of the conquered country, and called themselves De Hastings, De Winton, etc., a prefix probably never in vernacular use in England, and completely discarded with the disappearance of Norman-French, unless in a few cases where it was retained for the sake of euphony, or from coalescing with the initial vowel, as in De la Bèche, Danvers (d'Anvers), Dangerfield (d'Angerville). When English was used in place of Norman-French, the "de" was always rendered into “of." The affectation of resuming it in recent times is as unwarrantable in theory as in taste. Such a designation as lord De Tabley of Tabley House is an unmeaning tautology. The Scotch have a more expressive designation when they say Colquhoun of that Ilk. In France and Germany, a territorial surname (denoted by "de" or "von") came, when surnames spread to all classes, to be the mark of nobil ity, so much so that in latter times, when any one was ennobled by the sovereign, the "de was prefixed to his previously plebeian and not territorial name. In Britain, the "de" was never considered the test of nobility; the names of some of the most distinguished families were not territorial-e.g., Stewart, Butler, Spencer. In Scotland, surnames were hardly in use till the 12th c., and were for a long time very variable. The assumption of surnames by the common people is everywhere of much later date than their use by noble (gentle) families. As yet, they can hardly be said to be adopted by the people of the wilder districts of Wales.

There are many existing local surnames in Britain besides those derived from the names of the manors of the gentry or landholders. Farms, homesteads, the natural features of the country, all gave their names to those who resided at or near them; hence such names as Wood, Marsh, Dale. The preposition "at" is in a few cases retained, as in Atwood, A'Court, Nash (atten-ash, i. e., at the ash). The traveling habits of the Scots account for such names as Inglis, Fleming, Welsh (the original of Wallace), applied to those who had visited foreign parts; and sometimes a Scotsman, wandering into England, returned with the acquired name of Scott.

A large class of surnames are patronymics, often formed by "son," or its equivalent in the language of the country, added to the Christian name of the father. Names of this sort often fluctuate from generation to generation. Alan Walterson had a son, Walter, who called himself Walter Alanson. The genitive case of the father's name sometimes served the same purpose, as Adams. Jones; and similarly in Italian, Dosso, Dossi. A fashion of using "Fitz," the equivalent of "son," before the ancestral name, as in Fitz

Name.

In

herbert, prevailed temporarily in Normandy, whence it was imported into England. the highlands of Scotland, the prefix "Mac" (Macdonald) served the same purpose, which, however, fluctuated far longer than the patronymic surnames of England and the lowlands; so also the "O" (grandson) of the Irish (O'Neil), and Ap" of the Welsh (Ap Rhys, otherwise Apreece). The "de" of France had sometimes a similar origin, as in d'André d'Hugues; and still more frequently the "de," "dei," or "degli" of Italy-di Cola, di Giacomo.

Office, occupation, or condition, gives rise to surnames-e.g., Knight, Marshall, Page, Smith, Brewster, Shepherd; in Germany and Holland, Rauber and de Rogver (robber), and from such appellatives, patronymics may be again derived; thus, we have Smithson, de Maistre (master's son), M'Nab (son of the abbot), M'Pherson (son of the parson), del Sarto (son of the tailor), etc. So also personal qualities-Black, White, Strong, Stark, Lang (long), Littlejohn, Cruikshanks; and nicknames have not infrequently been perpetuated as surnames. We have also surnames derived from the signs and cognizances which were borne in the middle ages, not only by inns and shops, but by private houses. John at the Bell became John Bell; at Middleburg, in Holland, Simon, apothecary in the "Drake," or Dragon, became Simon Drack; hence, probably, the frequency of family names derived from animals, and also of those beginning with "Saint;" though this last class may, perhaps, sometimes have had its origin in the first owner of the name dedicating himself to the service of the saint in question. In Scotland and Ireland, "The" is a distinctive title borne by the heads of some old families-as “The Chisholm, "The O'Connor Don." In the highlands of Scotland, the chief of a clan is usually addressed by the name alone in a marked manner: thus, "Macleod" implies specially Macleod of Dunvegan, in Skye, head of the clan Macleod; "Mackintosh," in like manner, applies solely to Mackintosh of Moy, in Inverness-shire.

In England, the number of existing surnames approaches to 40,000, or about one to every 500 individuals; in Scotland, there are far fewer surnames in proportion to the population. The remarkable predominance of certain surnames in certain localities-as Campbell, Cameron, Maclean in Argyleshire, Macdonald in Inverness, Mackay in Sutherland, Gordon and Forbes in Aberdeenshire, and Scott, Ker, Elliot, Maxwell, and Johnstone on the borders-arises from the clansmen having made a practice of taking the name of their chiefs, considering themselves members of their family by adoption, if not otherwise. Elsewhere than in Scotland, vassals often adopted the names of their lords, and servants those of their masters. Two or more surnames are often borne by one individual, in which case the paternal surname is sometimes placed first, sometimes last; and, in recent times, it is by the name which occurs last that the bearer of the two surnames is most frequently known.

The wife, with us at least, changes her surname to that of her husband on marriage. In the continent, it is not unusual for the husband to append his wife's name to his own; and in Spain, the wife retains her own name, while the son is at liberty to use either paternal or maternal name as he pleases, the choice generally falling on the best family. Change of Name.-Prior to the reformation, surnames were less fixed than they have since become. Occasionally, younger sons, instead of retaining their patronymic, adopted the name of their estate or place of residence. A great matrimonial alliance was a frequent cause for adopting the patronymic of the wife. With the clergy, ordination was a common occasion of a change of name, the personal surname being exchanged for the name of the place of birth-thus, William Longe became William of Wykeham. In time of political troubles, a new name was often assumed for concealment; and in Scotland, the name of McGregor was proscribed in 1664 by an act of the privy council. In modern times, injunctions in settlements of land, and deeds of entail, are frequent grounds for a change of name, it being made a condition that the devisee or disponee shall assume a certain surname under penalty of forfeiture, a stipulation which the law recognizes as valid. Such an obligation is often combined with one relative to arms. In a Scotch entail, it is a very frequent condition that each succeeding heir of entail, or husband of an heiress of entail, shall assume the entailer's name and arms, or his name and arms exclusively; in the former case, he may, if he pleases, continue to use his own surname along with the assumed one. The heir of entail is not held legally to take up any arms not otherwise his own, unless he have applied to the heraldic authorities for leave so to do. Where a Scotch entail contained an injunction to bear arms which had no existence in the official record of arms, the condition has not been held to be null; the heir of entail must apply to the lord lyon for a grant of arms bearing the designation of those disponed. In England, it used to be common to obtain a private act of parliament to authorize one to change his surname; an authority for such a proceeding has generally been given in later times by royal license, which is granted only on a reasonable ground being established for the alteration, to the satisfaction of the kings-at-arms, to whom a remit is made. It has sometimes been supposed that this royal license is necessay to legalize such a change, but the highest legal authorities have laid it down that there is nothing in the law of England to prevent any one, who may consider it for his interest so to do, to change his surname, or even his christian name. The idea, lately prevalent to some extent, is equally erroneous, that an advertisement in a gazette or newspaper, or the execution of some deed, is a necessary form in order to effect a change of name. There are always great inconveniences in changing one's name which sufficiently account for