MUNTANER', RAMON', 1265-1340, b. Spain. His native town having been burnt by the French in 1285, he became a wandering soldier and minstrel, and for 30 years led an adventurous and eventful life. Returning to Catalonia, he began in 1325 to write the history of the princes of Aragon from the time of James the conqueror until the coronation of Alfonso IV. This chronicle of great events, of which he was the eyewitness, is valuable as a history of his time and is remarkable for its accuracy, naivete, epic beauty and grace. It remained in manuscript until the middle of the 16th century. The two most ancient editions of the original are at Valencia and Barcelona. The former is entitled Chronica o Descripcio dels fets e hazanayes del inclyt Rey Don Jaume. It has been translated into German and French, and Lanz at Stuttgart published an edition of the original in 1844.

MÜNTER, FRIEDRICH, 1761-1830, b. Germany; educated at Copenhagen and Göt tingen, where he studied theology and archæology. He afterwards continued his archaological researches in Italy, under the patronage of the Danish government. In 1790 he became professor of theology in the university of Copenhagen, and in 1808 bishop of Zealand. He edited the Coptic translation of Daniel, and the statutes of the Templars, and wrote works on the history of Christianity in Denmark, on the inscriptions at Persepolis, and on the religion of the Carthaginians.

MUNTJAK, Cervus muntjac, Cérvulus vaginalis, or Stylocerus muntjac, a species of deer, abundant in Java, Sumatra, and other islands of the same region. It is about onefifth larger than the roebuck, which it considerably resembles in form. The horns are remarkable, as there springs from the common base of each an additional horn, which is about 1 in. in length; the principal horn, which is simple, curved, and pointed, being about 5 in. in length. The female has no horns. The male has large canine teeth or tusks, which also are wanting in the female. Allied species are found in India and China.

MÜNZER, THOMAS, one of the leaders of the Anabaptists (q.v.), was b. at Stolberg, in the Harz, took his degree at Wittenberg as master of arts, and for some time preached the doctrines of the reformation in Zwickau and other places. Ere long, however, he adopted mystic views, and declaimed against what he called the "servile, literal, and half" measures of the reformers, requiring a radical reformation both in church and state according to his "inward light." He proclaimed an entire community of goods, and incited the populace to plunder the houses of the wealthy. Mühlhausen fell for a time under his sway and that of another fanatic named Pfeifer, who joined him. He took an active part in the peasant war, and inflamed the spirits of the insurgents by the wildest speeches and songs; but they were utterly defeated on May 15, 1525, after a severe conflict at Frankenhausen, by the elector John and duke George of Saxony, the landgrave of Hesse, and the duke of Brunswick. Münzer fled, but was taken and carried to Mühlhausen, where he was beheaded along with Pfeifer and a number of others. He showed no dignity or courage in the closing scenes of his life. See Strobel's Leben, Schriften, und Lehren Thom. Münzer's (Nürnb. 1795); Seidemann's Thom. Münzer (Dresd. and Leips. 1842); and Heinrich Leo in the Evangelische Kirchenzeitung (Berl. 1856).

MUN'ZINGER, WERNER, b. Switzerland, 1832; educated at Bern, Munich, and Paris. In 1852 he entered into business in Egypt, but soon after went on an exploring expedition southward in Africa, and was absent for about 6 years. He was attached to the expedition of Heuglin in 1861, but quitted it when it reached n. Abyssinia, and in company with Kinzelbach explored an unknown territory, and determined the course of the river Gash. In 1862 he was placed at the head of the German exploring expedition, succeeding Heuglin, and he endeavored to penetrate to Waday, but was unable to go farther than Kordofan. In 1864 he was appointed British consul at Massowah, and in the Anglo-Abyssinian war he acted as a guide to the English forces, after whose withdrawal he remained at Massowah as consul in the French service. In 1869, while on another exploring expedition to n. Abyssinia, he was attacked by an assassin and dangerously wounded. In 1870 he made a journey to s.e. Arabia, and was appointed governor of Massowah; and the next year he went on a new expedition into the country n. of the Bogos. Besides many contributions to geographical periodicals and the proceedings of geographical societies, he published: Customs and Laws of the Bogos, 1869; East African Studies, 1864; The German Expedition into East Africa, 1865; and a Dictionary of the Tigre Language. He d. 1875.

MUOTTA VALLEY, a lofty and secluded valley in the canton of Schwytz, Switzerland, through which the Muotta river flows down to lake Lucerne. Its chief place is the village of Muotta, 4 m. e.s.e. of Schwytz. Pop. 1,759.

MURAD V. (MEHEMET MURAD EFFENDI), Sultan of Turkey, b. Turkey, 1840; son of Abdul-Medjid, late sultan of Turkey. On May 30, 1876, the sultan Abdul-Aziz was deposed from his throne; and on the same day Murad was visited by a high dignitary of the state and informed that he was to become sultan, whereupon he proceeded to the great hall of the Seraskierat and was duly installed. Soon after his accession he discovered his total incapacity to conduct the government in the face of the difficulties by which it was surrounded. He became subject to fits of melancholia and lethargy, from

which it was nearly impossible to rouse him. An eminent physician was sent for to Vienna, who, after an examination, pronounced his patient unfitted by the nature of his malady for the conduct of the difficult and delicate duties of his position. Upon the advice of the physician in question, the ministerial council, after referring the law ques tions of the case to the sheikh ul-Islam, decided upon his deposition, which was accordingly effected on Aug. 31, 1876. He was succeeded by a younger brother, Abdul-Hamid, who was proclaimed sultan on the same day.

MURE'NA, a genus of malacopterous fishes, of those to which the name eel is commonly given, the whole of the eels being sometimes included in the family muranida, See EEL. The true murana have no fins except the dorsal and anal, which are low and fleshy. They have one row of sharp teeth in each jaw. The head is very large, and the jaws are moved with great power. The muræna of the Romans, or MURRY (M. helena), abounds in the Mediterranean, and is sometimes of large size, four feet or more in length, golden yellow in front and purple towards the tail, beautifully banded and mottled. It is much thicker in proportion to its length than any of the fresh-water eels. Its flesh is white and highly esteemed. It prefers salt water, but can accommodate itself to a fresh-water pond. The ancient Romans kept and fed it in vivaria. The story of Vedius Pollio feeding his murænas with offending slaves is well known, This muræna has been caught on the British shores, but very rarely. See illus., FISHES, vol. VI. Allied to the genus muræna is the genus sidera, found in the Pacific.

MURÆ NIDE. See EEL.

MURAL CIRCLE, an astronomical instrument for taking declinations; consisting of a large circle built against the wall (whence its name), movable on its axis in the plane of the meridian, and with a telescope attached, also in the plane of the meridian, which turns about an axis. The circle is graduated, the whole instrument counterweighted and furnished with an illuminating apparatus for night readings. Readings are made accurate by set-screws and microscopic micrometers. The plane of the limb and the optical axis of the telescope are made parallel to the meridian by leveling and sweeping screws, and the cross lines of the eye-piece should follow a star near the equator their whole length. The instrument being rectified, the height of a star above the horizon is measured by a cup of mercury; the star is observed directly and then by reflexion, the half sum of the readings being the correct angle. The co-latitude of the place is obtained as with the theodolite. As the tube is movable about the circle, reading should always be checked by reiteration; with more than one limb of the circle.

MURAL CROWN, in heraldry, a crown in the form of the top of a circular tower. masoned and embattled. It is meant to represent the crown which was given by the Romans as a mark of distinction to the soldier who first mounted the walls of a besieged town, and fixed there the standard of the army. A mural crown supporting the crest, in place of a wreath, occurs in the achievements of several of the English nobility, and in various grants of arms made in the early part of the present century to officers who had distinguished themselves in the war. Viscount Beresford, in consequence of his gallantry at the battle of Albuera, obtained as crest, issuing out of a mural crown, a dragon's head with its neck pierced through by a broken spear, the head of the spear, point downwards, being held in the mouth of the dragon.

MURAT, JOACHIM, king of Naples, was the son of an innkeeper at La Bastide-Fortunière, near Cahors, in France, and was born there March 25, 1767 or 1768. He was at first intended for the priesthood, and actually commenced the study of theology and canon law at Toulouse, but entered the army, and being threatened with punishment for insubordination, deserted, and after spending some time at home, proceeded to Paris, where, it is said, he was for some time a waiter at a café, but soon obtained admission into the constitutional guard of Louis XVI. On the outbreak of the revolution, he was made a sub-lieut. in a cavalry regiment. His gallantry and his extreme repub..canism soon won him the rank of colonel. He attached himself closely to Bonaparte, under whom he served in Italy and in Egypt, signalizing himself in many battles; rose to the rank of gen. of division (1799); returned with Bonaparte to France; and rendered him most important assistance on the 18th Brumaire, by dispersing the council of five hundred at St. Cloud. Bonaparte now intrusted him with the command of the consular guard, and gave him his youngest sister, Caroline, in marriage. Murat commanded the cavalry at Marengo, where he greatly distinguished himself. On the establishment of the French empire, he was loaded with honors. He continued to command the cavalry in the armies led by the emperor, and contributed not a little to the victory at Austerlitz, and to many other victories. In 1806 the newly-elected grand duchy of Berg (q.v.) was bestowed upon him. On Aug. 1, 1808, he was proclaimed king of the Two Sicilies by the style of Joachim I. Napoleon. He took possession of Naples, but the Bourbons, through the support of Britain, retained Sicily.

Murat possessed the qualities requisite for a gen. of cavalry rather than those of a king. He was very deficient in political skill and energy; but by the moderation of his government, he won the hearts of his subjects. Even his love of pomp and show, and the theatrical splendor of his equipment, which were a subject of mirth in France and Germany, rather gratified the Neapolitans. He endured with difficulty the yoke of Napoleon,

which left him little but the outward show of royalty. In the expedition against Russia, he commanded the whole cavalry, but on its failure, he returned to Naples, anxious and discontented. He joined the French army again in 1813, but after the battle of Leipzig, withdrew to his own dominions, determined on breaking the French fetters with which he was bound. He concluded a treaty with Austria, and a truce with the British admiral, and promised the allies an auxiliary corps. He hesitated, however, even after his new course seemed to have been decisively adopted; and finding his position insecure after Napoleon's overthrow, he entered into private communications with him at Elba. On the emperor's return to France, Murat placed himself at the head of an army of 40,000 men, and commenced a hasty war against Austria. He was defeated at Ferrara, April 12, 1815, and again at Tolentino, May 2. With a few horsemen he fled to Naples, where all was insurrection and commotion; thence to the island of Ischia, and found his way France, whilst his wife and children took refuge in the British fleet. After Napoleon's final overthrow, he found refuge in Corsica, from which he proceeded in a foolhardy manner with a few followers to the coast of Naples, and proclaimed himself king and liberator, but was presently taken prisoner, and after trial by a court-martial, was shot in a hall of the castle of Pizzo, Oct. 13, 1815. See Léonard Gallais, Histoire de Joachim Murat (Paris, 1828), and Coletta, Histoire des Six derniers mois de la Vie de Joachim Murat (Paris, 1821). His widow assumed the title of countess of Lipona, and resided in the neighborhood of Trieste, where she died in 1839. His two sons went to the United States, where the elder, NAPOLEON ACHILLE MURAT, settled in Florida, and published a number of works on the constitution and politics of his adopted country. He died April 15, 1847. The younger, NAPOLEON LUCIEN CHARLES, married an American lady in 1827, but suffered several reverses in fortune, and madame Murat was obliged to open a boarding-school for the support of herself and her husband. Twice he attempted to return to France secretly (in 1837 and 1844), but failed on both occasions. The revolu tion of 1848, however, opened the country to him. He attached himself closely to prince Louis Napoleon; and was in 1849 French ambassador extraordinary at Turin. In 1852 he was made a senator; and in 1853 he received the title of prince. The Italian revolution appeared to present some chances for him, but nothing came of these. He was made prisoner by the Germans at Metz in 1870. He d. 1878.

MURATORI, LUDOVICO ANTONIO, a celebrated antiquary and historian, was born at Vignola, in the duchy of Modena, Oct. 21, 1672. From a very early period, his predilection for historical and literary pursuits began to manifest itself; and, having entered into holy orders, without, however, accepting any ecclesiastical office, his life was devoted partly to the literature of his profession, but mainly to researches in history, both sacred and profane, especially the history of his native country. In his 22d year, he was appointed one of the librarians of the Ambrosian library at Milan, a post which has since received equal celebrity from a successor not unworthy of the fame of Murat, the illustrious Angelo Mai (q.v.). Here he gave to the world his first publication, a collection of inedited Greek and Latin fragments, under the titles of Anecdota Græca and Anecdota Latina. But his most import labors were reserved for the capital of his native duchy, whither, in 1700, he was recalled by the duke of Modena, to take charge of the celebrated D'Este library, and of the ducal archives; his only ecclesiastical preferment being that of provost of the church of St. Mary, at Pomposa. From the date of his return to Modena, Muratori began to devote himself more exclusively to Italian history, especially to the history of medieval Italy; and his labors in this department extended over the greater part of his life. It was not until the year 1723 that the first volume of his great collection, Rerum Italicarum Scriptores, appeared, and the work proceeded at regular intervals for nearly 30 years, the last of the 28 folio volumes which compose it bearing the date of 1751. This immense publication, which was produced by the joint contributions of the princes and higher nobility of Italy, embraces a range from the 5th to the 16th c., and contains all the chronicles of Italy during that vast period, illustrated with commentaries and critical notices. It was accompanied by a collection of dissertations illustrative of the religious, literary, social, political, military, and commercial relations of the several states of Italy during the period, in 6 vols. folio, 1738-1742, a work which, although far from being exempt from errors, is still regarded as a treasure-house of medieval antiquities. While engaged in these prodigious labors, Muratori carried on an active literary correspondence with the scholars of the various countries of Europe, and contributed essays not unfrequently to the principal historical and literary academies, of most of which he was a member. He was the first, moreover, to undertake a general history of Italy from the commencement of the vulgar era down to his own time. It is in 12 vols. 4to, and still retains its value as a book of reference, having been continued by Coppi down to the year 1819. In his capacity of archivist of the duke of Modena, he compiled, in 2 vols. folio, the Antiquities of the d'Este Family (1710-40), as well as a series of historical and polemical treatises on certain territorial questions in dispute between the house of Modena and the court of Rome. To the department of classical scholarship, Muratori's collection of Inscriptions (6 vols. folio, 1739-43), which, in this point of view, was a necessary supplement to the collection of Gruter and the other antiquaries who had preceded him, is still acknowledged as a most important contributiou; and he has also left works of standard merit in the departments of jurisprudence,

Murchison.

of literary criticism, of poetry, of biography, and even of the history of medical science. In the studies of his own profession, as well liturgical and historical, as dogmatical and even ascetical, Muratori, although he did not follow the method of the schools, was hardly less distinguished than if he had made these the pursuit of his life. Some of his opinions were regarded with disfavor, if not directly condemned; but his vindication of himself, addressed to the learned pope Benedict XIV., drew forth a warm and honorable testimony to the uprightness of his motives, which, without approving of the opinions to which exception had been taken, declared them free from the imputation of being contrary either to the doctrine or to the discipline of the church. Although Muratori's life was essentially that of a scholar, yet his exactness in discharging the duties of a parish priest was beyond all praise, and several of the existing charitable institutions of Pomposa were founded by him. He died at Modena, Jan. 28, 1750, in his 78th year. His works, which it would be tedious to enumerate in full detail, fill 46 vols. in folio, 34 in 4to, 13 in 8vo, and many more in 12mo. Some of these are posthumous, and were published by his nephew, G. F. Muratori, from whom we also have a life of his distinguished uncle, in 4to, printed at Omer, 1758.

MURATORIAN FRAGMENT, or CANON OF MURATORI, a very important treatise of Biblical MSS. It probably belongs to the latter half of the 2d century. It is valuable as affording evidence concerning the writings which were regarded as canonical by the churches of that day. It contains as such the gospel of Luke-which it calls the third, the existence of the first two being implied-the gospel of John, the Acts of the Apostles, 13 epistles of Paul, 1 of Jude, 2 of John, the revelations of John and Peter; the latter however, as being not universally acknowledged. The epistles of James and of Peter, and the epistle to the Hebrews, are omitted. It was brought into notice by Muratori, a distinguished archæologist, at the close of the 17th century.

MURAVIEF, an ancient boiar family, originally of Moscow, which in 1488 was presented by Ivan Vasilievitch I. with large estates in the province of Novgorod. Many members of this family took an important part in the military, literary, and political history of their country during the 18th and 19th centuries. The following are the most distinguished:(1.) Nikolaï Teroféievitch was capt. in the engineer corps, and in 1752 published the first work on algebra in the Russian language. Under Catherine II. he had charge of the Russian topographical works, became lieut.gen. and governor of Livonia, and died at Montpellier in 1770.-(2.) Mikhail Nikititch (1757-1807). At the age of 28, Catherine II. took him from the imperial guard to tutor her grandchildren, the grand dukes Alexander and Konstantin, for whom he composed works in prose and poetry distinguished for pure style and noble sentiments. In 1796 he became curator of the university of Moscow, in 1802 senator, and in 1804 councilor of state. His works were published in 1820 in three volumes.-(3.) Nikolai Nasarovitch, privy councilor, secretary of state, and until 1832 director of the imperial private chancelry, was also known as a writer. His works are published in St. Petersburg in five volumes.(4.) Nikolai Nikolaïévitch (1768-1840). He studied at the university of Strasburg, and on his return to Russia became a lieut. in the marine service. In the battle of Rotschensalm he was wounded and taken prisoner. Set at liberty by the peace of Verelä, he left the marine for the army, was appointed lieut.col., and founded near Moscow a private school for the officers of the general staff. He served in the campaigns of 1812-14 as col. and chief of staff under count Tolstor, arranged with gen. Dumas for the capitula tion of Dresden, and shortly after took part in the siege of Hamburg. He then returned with the rank of maj. gen. to his school, which in 1816 was declared to be imperial, and which he directed until 1823. During the last years of his life he became interested in agricultural pursuits and rural economy. He was one of the founders and most active members of the economic society of Moscow, and published a translation of Thaer's Principles of Rational Agriculture. He left five sons, all of whom became distinguished.-(5.) Alexander Nikolaïévitch (1792–1864), the eldest son of the preceding. In 1825 he took part in the conspiracy which broke out at the accession of Nicholas I. In consideration of his father's services his life was spared, and he was merely exiled to Siberia. Though he was afterwards permitted to return, his services were not required until the Crimean war, when he became maj. gen. and in 1856 governor of Novgorod. He was interested in the emancipation of the serfs. At the time of his death he was lieut.gen. and member of the senate of Moscow.-(6.) Nikolaï Nikolaïévitch (1793–1866). He entered the army in 1810, took part in all the campaigns of 1812-15, and won distinction for bravery at Borodino, Lutzen, Bautzen, Kulm, Leipsic, and under the walls of Paris. In 1817 he was attached to gen. Iermolof's staff, and served in the Caucasus. In 1822 he published his Travels in Turkomania and Khiva, which was translated into German, English, and French. In 1827 he became chief of staff under gen. Paskiévitch, took part in all the principal battles of the war with Persia, was promoted to the rank of maj.gen., and won great distinction at Kars and Akhalzik in the war of 1828. In 1830 the Polish rebellion broke out, and Muravief was recalled from an expedition against the Lesghians to take command of the Lithuanian grenadier brigade, with which he defeated the old Polish gen. Siéravski, near Kazimierz. Promoted to the rank of lieut.gen., he commanded the right wing at the storming of Warsaw in 1831, and captured the fortifi cations of Rakoviec. At the end of the next year he was sent to Egypt with special

Instructions to incite Mehemet Ali to revolt against the Turkish government. He then took charge of the Russian forces which landed on the shores of the Bosporus. In 1838 he fell into disgrace, and lived secluded for ten years, at the end of which he was called again into active service, and in 1854 was made commander of the expeditionary forces in the Caucasus. After a siege which lasted from the first of June till the last of November, he captured the important fortress of Kars. This victory, which partially redeemed the loss of Sevastopol, brought Muravief the title of prince and the appellation Karski. He was then made a state councilor, and put at the head of the commission to investigate the abuses committed during the Crimean war. In 1861 he was made chief of the regiment of grenadiers of Samogitia, one of the greatest honors which the czar can accord to generals not belonging to the imperial family.-(7.) Mikhail Niko lavévitch (1796-1866). At the age of 15 he was acting professor in the military school founded by his father. In 1813 he fought against the French, and at the conclusion of the campaign returned to his favorite study of mathematics, and translated into Russian Garnier's Geométrie Analytique. In 1823 he entered the army, and soon became col. In 1831 he advanced from maj.gen. to the military governorship of Grodno, and showed great activity in repressing the troubles which broke out in his province after the Polish revolution. He afterwards became military governor of Kursk, and entered the civil administration as privy councilor and senator. He was elected president of the Russian geographical society, and caused a great scientific expedition to be sent to Siberia. In 1857 he became minister of the crown lands and president of the council for the administration of the appanages of the state. He devoted his energies to the fostering of agriculture, founded an agronomic academy near Petroosk, but was violently opposed to the liberation of the serfs. In the student riots of 1861 he used such cruel modes of repression as to win universal hatred, and was removed from his functions. The Polish insurrection, however, brought him to the fore, and in 1863 he was named governorgeneral of Vilna with special honors. He acted with such energy that in a few months the insurrection was entirely put down. The czar, in recognition of his services, made him a count and placed him at the head of the commission to seek out and punish the accomplices of Karakasof, who attempted the assassination of Alexander II., in 1866.(8.) Nikolai Nikolaïévitch, b. 1810; entered into the army, served in the Caucasus, and by his bravery won the rank of maj.gen. and commander of the coasts of the Black sea. In 1847 he was named governor-general of eastern Siberia and made lieut.gen. He gained for Russia the entire territory of the Amur, and concluded the treaty of Aigun, May 28, 1858, by which this country was definitely ceded by China. His services were rewarded by the title of count and the name Amurski. In the summer of 1859 he went with twelve ships to Yedo, and concluded a favorable treaty with Japan. He then returned to St. Petersburg by way of Siberia. He resigned his governorship in 1861, and was named member of the imperial council.-—(9.) Andréi Nikolaïévitch entered, at an early age, the civil administration; became councilor and kammerjunker, and about 1830 undertook a journey to Syria and Palestine, which he described in his Pilgrimage to the Holy Places. He subsequently traveled in his own country, in Italy, and in the east, and published the results of his observations in several volumes. He wrote also besides many theological and dramatic works, a History of the Bible, History of the First Four Centuries of Christianity, History of Jerusalem, History of the Russian Church, Description of Georgia and Armenia, etc. He was a member of the holy synod.-A branch of the Muravief family, about 1730, married a daughter of Apostol, the hetman of the Cossacks, whose name was added to his own.-(1.) Ivan Matiriévitch Muravief-Apostol (1769-1851). Under the emperor Paul, Ivan was sent to the courts of Saxony and Madrid, and on his return became privy councilor and senator. He had a thorough knowledge of the ancient and modern languages, and translated into Russian Sheridan's School for Scandal, the Satires of Horace, and the Clouds of Aristophanes. In 1820 he traveled in the Taurid, and published the results of his archæological investigations. His old age was saddened by the political ruin of his three sons, whom he survived for more than a quarter of a century.-(2.) Sergii Ivanovitch was lieut.col. of the regiment of Tchernigof, a man of remarkable energy and learning, and the leading spirit in the Dekabrist conspiracy of 1825. Despite the news of the failure of the rising in St. Petersburg, he proclaimed the grand duke Konstantin emperor, and seized the town of Vasilkof. Troops were sent against him, and, after a gallant resistance, in which he was wounded and his brother Ippolit was killed at his side, he was captured, taken to St. Petersburg, and hung in July, 1826. His other brother Matvéi was also a Dekabrist, and was sent to Siberia for twenty years.

MURCHISON, CHARLES, 1830-79; b. Jamaica, of Scotch descent. He studied at the university of Aberdeen from 1845 to 1851, obtaining a prize for Greek scholarship, the Balfour medal for skill in plant dissection, and the Thompson prize. After gradu ating at the medical school in 1851 with high honors, he went to Turin, as physician to the British embassy. On his return in 1852 he resided a short time in Edinburgh, studied in Dublin and Paris, and then accepted the position of professor of chemistry in the Calcutta medical college. He remained in India until 1855 and published a treatise on the diseases of that country. He then returned to England, and in London was connected as lecturer, demonstrator of anatomy, assistant physician, or managing physician with the Westminster general dispensary, St. Mary's, King's College, Middlesex, and the

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