Miranda.

the apostolic age the more numerous they are. 4. Most of the church fathers allowed falsehood for the glory of God. 5. Several church fathers concede that in their time extensive frauds with the relics of saints were already practiced. 6. The Nicene miracles were doubted and contradicted even among contemporaries. 7. The church fathers contradict themselves sometimes respecting the prevalent faith in miracles, and again maintaining that miracles in the biblical sense had long since ceased. Yet Dr. Schaff remarks that a rejection of these miracles by no means charges intentional deception in every case, for between the proper miracle and fraud there are many intermediate steps of self-deception: clairvoyance, magnetic phenomena and cures, and unusual states of the human soul, which is full of deep mysteries. Constantine's vision of the cross, for example, may be traced to a prophetic dream, and the frustration of Julian's attempt to build the Jewish temple to a special providence or a natural historical judgment of God. A conclusive argument against many, at least, of these so-called miracles is that they are trifling and childish; others indecorous; others irreverent, and even blasphemous. Those contained in the Breviary and Roman ecclesiastical histories are too numerous to recite. Finally, it may be said that many distinguished Roman Catholic authors do not accept these as genuine miracles; even pope Gregory XI., who had been persuaded by the prophecies of St. Catharine of Sienna to return to Rome from Avignon, warning all on his death-bed to beware of human beings, whether male or female, speaking under pretense of religion the visions of their own brain, for by these, he said, he had been led away.

MIRACULOUS CONCEPTION, THE, denotes the supernatural formation of the bodily human nature of Jesus Christ from the substance of the Virgin Mary by the operation of the Holy Ghost. The proof by which this central article of Christianity is established was furnished, before the conception took place, by divine revelation to Mary herself and afterwards to Joseph her espoused husband. It is implied also by several particular declarations of Scripture and by its general teaching concerning the incarnate Son of God. It is the point from which is dated by most of the Christian theologians the union of the divine and human natures in the person of the Redeemer; and it gives completeness and consistency to the revelation concerning him. It exalts even his human nature by its immediately divine origin above that of the race to whom he was in all respects made like, yet without sin; and gives the necessary basis for the innumerable implications of the New Testament that his personal relation to the Father was unique in kind as well as degree. As a miracle, it accords with and is no more amazing than the miracle of his character. See INCARNATION; JESUS CHRIST.

MIRAFLORES, MANUEL DE PANDO, Marquis of, and count of Villapaterna, 17921872, b. Madrid. He was sent as ambassador to London in 1834, and to Paris in 1838. In 1846 he was president of the council of ministers, and filled the same office in 1863. He was ambassador to Vienna in 1861, and several times president of the senate. He wrote a number of works which are of value for the political history of Spain during the last fifty years. The most important is Memoirs for the history of the first seven years of the Reign of Isabel II.

MIRAGE', a phenomenon extremely common in certain localities, and as simple in its origin as astonishing in its effects. Under it are classed the appearance of distant objects as double, or as if suspended in the air, erect or inverted, etc. One cause of mirage is a diminution of the density of the air near the surface of the earth, produced by the transmission of heat from the earth, or in some other way; the denser stratum being thus placed above, instead of, as is usually the case, below the rarer. Now, rays of light from a distant object, situated in the denser medium (i. e., a little above the earth's level), coming in a direction nearly parallel to the earth's surface, meet the rarer medium at a very obtuse angle, and (see REFRACTION) instead of passing into it, are reflected back to the dense medium, the common surface of the two media acting as a mirror. Suppose, then, a spectator to be situated on an eminence, and looking at an object situated like himself in the denser stratum of air, he will see the object by means of directly transmitted rays; but besides this, rays from the object will be reflected from the upper surface of the rarer stratum of air beneath to his eye. The image produced by the reflected rays will appear inverted, and below the real object, just as an image reflected in water appears when observed from a distance. If the object is a cloud or portion of sky, it will appear by the reflected rays as lying on the surface of the earth, and bearing a strong resemblance to a sheet of water; also, as the reflecting surface is irregular, and constantly varies its position, owing to the constant communication of heat to the upper stratum, the reflected image will be constantly varying, and will present the appearance of a water surface ruffled by the wind. This form of mirage, which even experienced travelers have found to be completely deceptive, is of common occurrence in the arid deserts of lower Egypt, Persia, Tartary, etc.

In particular states of the atmosphere, reflection of a portion only of the rays takes place at the surface of the dense medium, and thus double images are formed, one by reflection, and the other by refraction-the first inverted, and the second erect. The phenomena of mirage are frequently much more strange and complicated, the images being often much distorted and magnified, and in some instances occurring at a considerable distance from the object, as in the case of a tower or church seen over the sea, or a

Miranda.

vessel over dry land, etc. The particular form of mirage known as looming is very frequently observed at sea, and consists in an excessive apparent elevation of the object. A most remarkable case of this sort occurred on July 26, 1798, at Hastings. From this place the French coast is fifty miles distant; yet, from the sea-side the whole coast of France from Calais to near Dieppe was distinctly visible, and continued so for three hours. In the Arctic regions it is no uncommon occurrence for whale-fishers to discover the proximity of other ships by means of their images seen elevated in the air, though the ships themselves may be below the horizon. Generally, when the ship is above the horizon, only one image, and that inverted, is found; but when it is wholly or in great part below the horizon, double images, one erect and the other inverted, are frequently seen. The faithfulness and distinctness of these images at times may be imagined from the fact, that capt. Scoresby, while cruising off the coast of Greenland in 1822, discovered the propinquity of his father's ship from its inverted image in the sky. Another remarkable instance of mirage occurred in May, 1854, when, from the deck of H. M. screw-steamer Archer, then cruising off Oesel, in the Baltic, the whole English fleet of nineteen sail, then nearly thirty miles distant, was seen as if suspended in the air upside down. Besides such phenomena as these, the celebrated Fata Morgana (q.v.) of the straits of Messina sinks into insignificance. The Specter of the Brocken, in Hanover, is another celebrated instance of mirage. Its varieties are indeed numberless, and we refer those who wish for further information to Brewster's Optics, Biot's Traité de Physique, and for the mathematical theory of the mirage to the works of Biot, Monge, and Wollaston. See also REFLECTION and REFRAC

TION.

MIRAMICHI' RIVER, the second largest river in New Brunswick. It is formed by the junction of its two branches, the n. w. and s. w. Miramichi. It flows, after a course of about 100 m., into the bay of Miramichi, a part of the gulf of St. Lawrence. Pine woods line the banks of the river, which is navigable for vessels of moderate size for a distance of 40 m. from its mouth.

MIR'AMON, MIGUEL, 1832-67; b. Mexico, of French extraction. He was educated at the military academy at Chepultepec, near the city of Mexico, and was one of the defend ers of that stronghold against the American assault, Sept. 8, 1847, being wounded and taken prisoner. At the end of the war he was released, and filled his term in the academy. In 1852 he was regularly enlisted in the Mexican army, and two years later had gained the rank of capt. He was distinguished in several revolutionary engagements, and was promoted to be a col. in 1855. The existing political situation becoming reversed, and Alvarez being president, Miramon found his position in the army a very delicate one. Being sent on an expedition against the enemies of the new government, he rebelled on his own account, and turned his force over to the revolutionists, whom he commanded in a successful attack on Puebla. That city being besieged by order of Alvarez, Miramon defended it with remarkable skill and spirit on two occasions. It capitulated to an overpowering force in the latter part of 1856, and Miramon, having escaped, conducted an independent fight until he was wounded and captured in the following year. He succeeded in obtaining his release, and continued to resist the government until Comonfort, who had succeeded Alvarez, retired from the presidency. The struggle now began which has passed into Mexican history as the "war of reform," in which Miramon was conspicuous on the side and at the head of the church party. Zuloaga had already succeeded Comonfort in the presidency, and on a new election Miramon was named as his successor, but declined. On the retirement of Zuloaga, however, he was appointed president pro tem., when at the head of the army he continued the war against the liberals and Juarez. He was concerned in, and partly responsible for, the miserable massacre of Tacubaya in 1859. In the latter part of 1860 the liberals were successful, and Miramon fled the country. He traveled in Europe until the French intervention and the accession of Maximilian as emperor, when he received a diplomatic position abroad. In 1866 he returned to Mexico, and, with Marquez, was placed in command of Maximilian's army. He was captured May 15, 1867, and, with the emperor and gen. Mejia, was shot June 19. MIRANDA, FRANCISCO, about 1750-1816; b. Caracas, South America. He accompanied the French forces in their campaign in aid of American independence, then returned to South America and attracted attention by endeavoring to incite a revolution among the Spanish troops over whom he was col. He was compelled to flee, however, and next traveled in Europe, where he obtained the friendship particularly of the Russian empress Catherine II., William Pitt, and leaders in the French revolution. While in Paris, in 1790, the Girondists appointed him a maj. gen., and he attended Dumouriez in his campaign against the Prussians. Though he was a skillful commander, the forces under his command met with little success; and a defeat at Neerwinden was attributed to his treachery, a suspicion that caused his arraignment before the revolutionary tribunal. After the fall of the Girondists he was threatened with transportation, and fled to England. In 1803 Napoleon banished him again, and he visited New York, where he obtained assistance in a second attempt to overthrow the power of Spain in South America. Two vessels were fitted out for him, and he sailed for South America in 1806. But the undertaking came to nothing, and it was not until 1810 that he succeeded in gaining a triumph, and compelled the subjugation of Valentia,

Miserere.

Puerto Cabello, and nearly the whole of New Granada. This lasted a year. The Span ish monarchy then gained the ascendency; Miranda was forced to surrender; and, in violation of the conditions, he was sent to Spain, where he died in the dungeons of the inquisition.

MIRANDOLA, a t. of northern Italy, in the province of Modena, and 20 m. n.n.e. of the city of that name. It stands in the midst of a low-lying and somewhat unhealthy flat, and contains numerous churches, a cathedral, and a citadel. Rice is much cultivated in the vicinity, and the breeding of silk-worms is an important branch of industry. Pop. of town, '71, 3,059; of commune, 13,170.

MIRANDOLA, PICO DELLA. See PICO, GIOVANNI DELLA MIRANDOLA.

MIRBEL, LUZINSKA AIMÉE ZOË RUE, 1796-1849; b. at Cherbourg, France. Most of her life was spent in Paris, where she married in 1820 the celebrated naturalist, Charles François Brisseau Mirbel, and won a high reputation as a miniature and portrait painter. MIRECOURT, a t. of France in the department of Vosges, in a picturesque district, 20 m. s. of Nancy. It is famous for its manufactures of lace, and of church organs and stringed musical instruments. Pop. 5,500.

MIRÈS, JULES, 1809–71; b. in Bordeaux, of Jewish parentage. He opened in Paris as a broker, became director in a gas company, and in 1848 purchased the Journal des Chemins de Fer in company with Moïse Millaud. They afterwards purchased the Conseiller du Peuple, the Constitutionnel, and other journals; then founded the Caisse des Chemins de Fer, or railway bank, and, by means of all these agencies skillfully employed, acquired great fortunes. In 1860 Mirès negotiated a Turkish loan. In 1861 he was arrested for fraud and condemned to five years' imprisonment and a fine. Appealing from the first decision to the imperial court the judgment was confirmed; the court of cassation set it aside; but on a second trial before the same court the judgment was finally affirmed, and Mirès served in the penitentiary till 1866, when he returned to Paris, resumed banking, and published Un Crime Judiciére.

MIRFIELD, a manufacturing village of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, three m. e. of Dewsbury. The manufactures are fancy and other woolen fabrics, and cotton goods. It is one of the chief railway centers in the country. Pop. '81, 11,512.

MIRIAM (Gr. Mariam, Lat. Maria, Eng. Mary), the sister of Moses, the leader and lawgiver of the Hebrews. She is presumed to be the sister who watched him when an infant concealed in a basket on the banks of the Nile. On occasion of the deliverance of Israel from Pharaoh and his host at the Red sea, she led the Israelitish women forth with music, taking up in response the song of Moses, and enjoining her followers to "Sing to the Lord." She is styled Miriam the prophetess, and in the book of Micah is classed with Moses and Aaron in the words, "I sent before thee Moses, Aaron, and Miriam." She seems, however, to have been the instigator as well as a sharer in the rebellion of Aaron against Moses on occasion of the coming of Moses's wife to the camp, as the whole punishment was visited upon her. She died, and was buried in the first month after the 40th year of the Exodus, at Kadesh-barnea, where her sepulcher was still shown in the time of Eusebius.

MIRKHOND', 1433-98; b. Persia; the author of a voluminous work relating to Persian history, entitled Garden of Purity in the History of the Prophets, Kings, and Caliphs, of which there are manuscripts in the libraries of London, Paris, Berlin, and Vienna. Besides the fragments in Wilkins's Persian grammar, portions of the work have been published in Persian and Latin in The History of the Persian Kings, by the German scholar Jenisch; also, in Silvestre de Sacy's Mémoires sur diverses Antiquities de la Perse, in Jourdain's Notice de l'Histoire Universelle de Mirkhond, and in English by David Shea under the title of History of the Early Kings of Persia (London, 1832).

MIRPUR, a flourishing t. of India, in Sinde, on the left bank of the Piniari, 45 m. s. of Hyderabad. It contains a fort capable of accommodating 200 men, and which commands the route from Hyderabad to Cutch. The surrounding district is fertile and well cultivated. Pop. 3,000.

MIRROR, a reflecting surface, usually made of glass, lined at the back with a brilliant metal, so as strongly to reflect the image of any object placed before it. When mirrors were invented is not known, but the use of a reflecting surface would become apparent to the first person who saw his own image reflected from water; and probably for ages after the civilization of man commenced, the still waters of ponds and lakes were the only mirrors; but we read in the Pentateuch of mirrors of brass being used by the Hebrews. Mirrors of bronze were in very common use among the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, of which many specimens are preserved in museums. eles taught the use of silver in the manufacture of mirrors in the year 328 B.C. of glass were first made at Venice in 1300; and judging from those still in existence-of which one may be seen at Holyrood palace, in the apartments of queen Mary-they were very rude contrivances, compared with modern ones. It was not until 1673 that the making of mirrors was introduced into England. It is now a very important manufacture; and mirrors can be produced of any size to which plate glass can be cast. After the plate of glass is polished on both sides, it is laid on a perfectly level table of great

Praxit Mirrors

Miserere.

strength and solidity, usually of smooth stone, made like a billiard table, with raised edges; a sheet or sheets of tin foil sufficient to cover the upper surface of the glass are then put on, and rubbed down smooth, after which the whole is covered with quicksilver, which immediately forms an amalgam with the tin. The superfluous mercury is then run off, and a woolen cloth is spread over the whole surface, and square iron weights are applied. After this pressure has been continued a day and night, the weights and the cloth are removed, and the glass is removed to another table of wood, with a movable top, which admits of gradually increasing inclination until the unamalgamated quicksilver has perfectly drained away, and only the surface of perfect amalgam remains coating the glass, and perfectly adherent to it.

Heat is reflected like light; so that a concave mirror may be used to bring rays of heat to a focus. In this way combustible substances may be set on fire at a distance from the reflector whence they receive their heat. Thus used, a mirror is called a burning-mir

ror.

MIRTA, a t. of India, in the Rajpoot state of Jodhpur, stands on high ground, near the source of a tributary of the Luni, 230 m. s. w. of Delhi. Mirta is supplied with good water from three large tanks. Pop. estimated at 25,950.

MIRZA, a contraction of Emir Zadah, "son of the prince," is, when prefixed to the surname of the individual, the common title of honor among the Persians; but when annexed to the surname, it designates a prince or a male of the blood-royal.

MIRZAPUR, a t. of British India, capital of the district of the same name, on the right bank of the Ganges, which is here half a mile wide, and crossed by a ferry, 40 m. s.w. of Benares. It has some manufactures of carpets, cottons, and silks, and is the greatest cotton-mart in India. Pop. '72, 67,274. The district of Mirzapur, in the Northwest Provinces, is watered by the Ganges and the Sone. Lat. 23° 50′ to 25° 30′ n.; long. 82' 11' to 83° 39' e. Area, 5,235 sq. miles. Pop. '72, almost all Hindus, 1,054,413. The chief productions, besides the usual cereals, are cotton, indigo, and sugar. The climate is, on the whole, unhealthy for Europeans.

MISCEGENATION. See page 881.

MISDEMEANOR is one of the technical divisions of crimes, by the law of England and Ireland. The usual division of crimes is into treason (which generally stands by itself, though, strictly speaking, included in), felony, and misdemeanor. The offense of greatest enormity is treason, and the least is misdemeanor. The original distinction between felony and misdemeanor consisted in the consequences of a conviction. A party convicted of felony, if capital, forfeits both his real and personal estate; if not capital, his personal estate only. A party convicted of misdemeanor forfeits none of his property. The distinction is not kept up between the two classes of crimes by any greater severity of punishment in felony, for many misdemeanors are punished as severely as some felonies. But it has been the practice of the legislature, when creating new offenses, to say whether they are to be classed with felony or misdemeanor; and when this is done, the above incidents attach to the conviction accordingly.

MISDEMEANOR (ante), in the United States, is such a criminal act under common law or statute as is not included in common law or statutory felonies and is not treason. The term does not include, in its legal application, offenses against police regulations, city by-laws, and the like, though in common language it may extend to any mis behavior. It is evident that what is a statute-felony in one state may be a misdemeanor in another, and it is therefore impossible to give a complete classification of such offenses. They may be crimes against public justice, peace, health, or trade; against personal or property rights of individuals; or may be mere attempts and solicitations. Bouvier defines the word as applied to "all those crimes and offenses for which the law has not provided a particular name. Sometimes, but in this country rarely, the term misprision is used to include all higher classes of misdemeanor. Misdemeanor may be punished by trial brought either after indictment or information—that is, presentation by either a grand jury or a public prosecutor; and in most states the rule prevails that where felony is charged in the indictment but the evidence proves only an offense amounting to misdemeanor, conviction may be had of the latter.

In some states it is provided that upon acknowledgment of satisfaction by the injured party, in such cases as assault and battery or malicious mischief, the criminal procedure shall, with the consent of the magistrate, be dropped; a course which, obviously, would be improper in dealing with felonies.

MISE NO, a promontory of the province of Naples, 9 m. s. w. of the city of Naples. On the outskirts of the promontory are the extensive ruins of the ancient city of Misenum, including a vast church and theater. Miseno is much visited on account of its wonderful grotto Draconara, and a curious subterranean building or labyrinth, called the Hundred Chambers, supposed to have been anciently employed as dungeons.

MISERE RE, the name by which, in Catholic usage, the 50th psalm of the Vulgate (51st in authorized version) is commonly known. It is one of the so-called Penitential Psalms," and is commonly understood to have been composed by David in the depth of his remorse for the double crime which the prophet Nathan rebuked in the well-known parable (2 Sam. xii.). Another opinion, however, attributes this psalm to Manasses, or to some of the psalm-writers of the captivity. The Misereré is of frequent occurrence

Misrepresentation.

in the services of the Roman church; and in the celebrated service of Tenebræ, as performed in the Sixtine chapel at Rome, it forms, as chanted by the pope's choir, one of the most striking and impressive chants in the entire range of sacred music. It is sung on each of the three nights in holy week (q.v.) on which the office of Tenebræ is held, with different music on each of the three occasions, the three composers being Bai, Baini, and the still more celebrated Allegri.-Misereré is also the name of one of the evening services in Lent, which is so called from the singing of that psalm, and which includes a sermon, commonly on the duty of sorrow for sin.

MISERERE, a projection on the under side of the seats of the stalls of mediæval churches and chapels, etc. They are usually ornamented with carved work, and are so shaped that when the seats proper are folded up, they form a small seat at a higher level, sufficient to afford some support to a person resting upon it. Aged and infirm ecclesiastics were allowed to use these during long services.

MISFEA'SANCE, in legal language, means the doing of a positive wrong, in contradistinction to nonfeasance, which means a mere omission. Acts are sometimes followed with different legal consequences, according as they fall under the head of misfeasance or nonfeasance.

MISHAWA'KA, a village in n. Indiana, a part of the township of Penn, on the s. bank of the St Joseph river, navigable to this place, and furnishing good water-power; pop. '80, 2,640. It is 4 m. e. of South Bend, and 11 m. w. of Elkhart, and has a station on the Northwestern Grand Trunk railway, and the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern. It has excellent public schools, 7 churches, 1 bank, water-works, and important industries, comprising the manufacture of flour, axes, refrigerators, wind-mills, pumps, brushes, furniture, agricultural implements, etc., and a variety of stores.

MISH MEE BITTER, the root of Coptis teeta (see COPTIS), a plant found in the mountainous regions on the borders of India and China; of the same genus with the golden thread of the northern parts of the world, and not unlike it. The root is in much use

and esteem in some parts of the east as a stomachic and tonic, and has begun to be known in Europe.—The root of C. trifoliata is also used as a bitter.

MISHNA (from Heb. shana, to learn; erroneously held to designate repetition) com prises the body of the "oral law," or the juridico-political, civil, and religious code of the Jews; and forms, as such, a kind of complement to the Mosaic or written law, which it explains, amplifies, and immutably fixes. It was not, however, the sole authority of the schools and the masters on which these explanations and the new ordinances to which they gave rise depended, but rather certain distinct and well-authenticated traditions, traced to Mount Sinai itself. No less were certain special letters and signs in the written law appealed to in some cases, as containing an indication to the special, newly issued, or fixed prohibitions or rules. See HALACHA. The Mishna (to which the Toseftas and Boraithas form supplements) was finally redacted, after some earlier incomplete collections, by Jehudah Hanassi, in 220 A.D., at Tiberias. It is mostly written in pure Hebrew, and is divided into six portions (Sedarim): 1. Zeraim (Seeds), on Agriculture; 2. Moed (Feast), on the Sabbath, Festivals, and Fasts; 3. Nashim (Women), on Marriage, Divorce, etc. (embracing also the laws on the Nazirship and vows); 4. Nezikin (Damages), chiefly civil and penal law (also containing the ethical treatise Aboth); 5. Kadashim (Sacred Things), Sacrifices, etc.; description of the Temple of Jerusalem, etc.; 6. Tehoroth (Purifications), on pure and impure things and persons. See also

TALMUD.

MISILME'RI (corrupted from Menzil-al-Amir, village of the Emirs), a t. of the island of Sicily, in the province of Palermo, 7 m. s.e. of Palermo city. It is a straggling, poverty-stricken town. It was at Misilmeri that Garibaldi, in May, 1860, joined the Sicilian insurgents; and it was by a short cut from Misilmeri to Palermo, through the pass of Mezzagna, that he advanced on the latter city and took it by a coup de main. Misilmeri used to be a notorious harbor of banditti. Pop. 7,250.

MISKOLCZ', the principal t. in the co. of Borsod, Hungary, situated at the extremity of a beautiful valley, 25 m. n.e. of Erlau. It is connected with Debreczin by railway, and contains numerous churches, two gymnasia, and other educational institutions. Wine and melons are extensively cultivated. From the iron obtained in the vicinity, the best steel in Hungary is made. The chief trade is in wine. Pop. '80, 24,319. MISNIA. See MEISSEN.

MISNO MER is the giving of a wrong name to a party in a suit. Formerly the objection of misnomer was of some importance, but now is of none, as it is easily cured by amendment.

MISNOMER, an instance of erroneous or erratic nomenclature, often proceeding on the lucus a non lucendo principle, as in the case of the so-called German silver," which is not silver, was not invented or discovered by a German, and was in use in China ages ago. Among the large number of expressions which may be called misnomers the following are in common use in the English language: Black-lead, which is compounded of carbon and iron; blind-worms, which are not blind; Brazilian grass, which is not grass, but strips of palm-leaf, and comes from Cuba and not Brazil; Burgundy pitch is