which the listener instinctively supplies. The minor premise is also often omitted, as when we say, "Fenton should have a public park, for every city should have a public park." Even the conclusion is sometimes merely implied; for example, "Every criminal should be brought to trial, and certainly X is a criminal."

Thus, with the omission of one of the premises or even the conclusion, we constantly use this logical sequence in developing our ideas. The chief reason for its frequent use is the fact that well-established generalizations-and only such should constitute the bases of deductions-are the results of long experience, often a part of the accumulated wisdom of generations or ages. It is, of course, absolutely essential that an audience accept the general statement, the major premise. With that assured, however, the speaker has only to show that the specific phenomenon falls under the generalization, in order to establish an inevitable conclusion. Compared with the difficulty of establishing the generalization itself, this task is simple. A very clear case in point is found in the work of a criminal lawyer, who, if he can prove his client insane, frees him from responsibility for the crime which he has committed. This is often a difficult proposition, but imagine the time it must have taken to establish the major premise, "No insane person should be held accountable

for his crime"! It will be readily understood that the speaker ought never to ignore the advantage of deduction whenever it is applicable.

VII. Narration-Description

A considerable number of points can be developed wholly or in greater part by the narrativedescriptive method. Sometimes narration is used exclusively; sometimes only description. But since the two are so frequently combined, it is better to consider them together. Unquestionably this method of elaborating a point or an entire topic is the easiest one because the subjectmatter is practically self-arranged. Moreover, each successive advance suggests the following step while one is speaking. A schoolboy can describe or narrate before he is able to undertake with any success the more difficult tasks of exposition or argumentation. Incidentally, it is a very good idea for beginners to serve their early speaking apprenticeship with topics which permit of the narrative-descriptive method of development. Travel, biography, and the great variety of subjects which lend themselves to historical treatment belong to this category.

VIII. Definition

Definition, understood in a broad sense, is an extremely important factor in elaboration. It

ranges from a mere synonym, or dictionary explanation, for a single word, to a detailed and varied exposition of a complex idea. It is sufficient to say that "definite" means "distinct, clear-cut;" or, using the logical form, that a triangle is a plane figure (genus) having three sides (differentia). But whenever in his address a speaker brings forward an unfamiliar or involved concept or expression, he must employ more elaborate means to make its meaning perfectly clear to the audience. We shall therefore present some of the most important methods of definition, considered as means of elaborating the points of a discussion.

a. By Repetition

The meaning of a statement which the audience does not seem to understand may often be made clear by repeating the idea in a different form, preferably in simpler terms. The repetition may also be employed in such a way as to afford the audience a new viewpoint. Again, new factors may be added in a series of repetitions, each succeeding repetition contributing something and embodying the gist of the preceding cumulation. For example:

The government of the City of X is feudal rather than democratic in its structure. That is, it is dominated by an overlord and his political hench

men. These feudal rulers of the City of X are mulcting the people as of old to fortify and garnish their own strongholds. Such an antiquated form of public robbery should long ago have met with determined suppression at the hands of enlightened citizenship.

Of course the ordinary form of repetition with a change of the wording or the viewpoint is usually more applicable, but in case the cumulative repetition can be used, it has the additional value of gathering force as it moves forward, much as the stream fed by tributaries.

b. By Comparison or Contrast

Comparison or contrast is another advantageous means of defining. This method aims to make the subject clear by showing its points of likeness or dissimilarity to something which is already familiar to the audience. Or, if the particular thing under consideration is likely to be confused in the minds of the listeners with some other concept, a careful comparison of the two is desirable, even though both be unfamiliar. Each will be illuminated by being displayed in the light of the other. Socialism and Anarchism, Republicans and Progressives, Syndicalism and Unionism, Conservatism and Radicalism, Science and Art are suggestive of the types which invite

and reward comparison or contrast. The following passage from an address on literature by Professor Brander Matthews illustrates the method:

"Art and Science have each of them their own field; they have each of them their own work to do; and they are not competitors but colleagues in the service of humanity, responding to different needs. Man cannot live by Science alone, since Science does not feed the soul; and it is Art which nourishes the heart of man. Science does what it can; and Art does what it must. Science takes no thought of the individual; and individuality is the essence of Art. Science seeks to be impersonal and it is ever struggling to cast out what it calls the personal equation. Art cherishes individuality and is what it is because of the differences which distinguish one man from another, and therefore the loftiest achievements of Art are the result of the personal equation raised to the highest power.'

c. By Negation

Closely akin to the method just presented is definition by negation; that is, by clearing away false notions from the mind of the audience; by explaining what the subject is not. Sometimes negative statements are used exclusively until the speaker has the ground cleared for the reception of the positive definition. Burke, in his